A  STUDY  OF  PIETY  IN  THE  GREEK 
TRAGIC  CHORUS 


BY 


HENRY  VOGEL  SHELLEY 


A  THESIS 

PRESENTED  TO  THE  FACULTY  OF  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  IN 

PARTIAL  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR 

THE  DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 


PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 
1919 


O 


, EXCHANGE 


UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 


A  STUDY  OF  PIETY  IN  THE  GREEK 
TRAGIC  CHORUS 


BY 

HENRY  VOGEL  SHELLEY 


A  THESIS 

PRESENTED  TO  THE  FACULTY  OF  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  IN 

PARTIAL  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR 

THE  DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 


PHILADELPHIA,  PA, 
1919 


SXCHANG& 


5? 


The  writer  desires  here  to  express  his  sincere 
thanks  to  Professor  W.  N.  Bates,  Professor  W.  W. 
Hyde  and  Professor  H.  L.  Crosby  for  their  valu- 
able help  in  the  preparation  of  this  dissertation. 


'ft 


CONTENTS 


I.  INTRODUCTION 7 

II.  PERSONNEL  OP  THE  TRAGIC  CHORUS .~rr  -8 

1.  A  comparison  of  the  Supplices  of  Aeschylus  and  the  Suppliants 
of  Euripides 10 

III.  RELATIVE  IMPORTANCE  OP  THE  CHORUS  IN  AESCHYLUS,  SOPHOCLES 

AND  EURIPIDES 12 

IV.  PHASES  OP  THE  CHORUS'  PIETY: 

1.  Deification  of  abstract  ideas 13 

a.  Destiny 14 

b.  Necessity 15 

c.  Time 15 

d.  Justice 15 

e.  Time  and  Justice  combined 23 

f .  Retribution 24 

2.  Scorn  of  prosperity  basely  acquired 25 

3.  Respect  for  temporal  authority 26 

4.  Power  of  the  gods 27 

a.  Fickleness  of  fortune 29 

b.  Omnipotence  of  love 30 

5.  Majesty  of  individual  gods 31 

a.  Dionysus 31 

b.  Apollo 31 

c.  Zeus 31 

6.  Fear  of  the  gods 32 

7.  Hatred  of  ugpt<; 34 

8.  Humility 34 

9.  Abhorrence  of  religious  pollution 35 

10.  Moral  restraint  (06  Os^tq) 36 

11.  Strict  observance  of  ritual  forms 37 

12.  Faith  in  the  gods 38 

13.  Prayer 38 

14.  Appeals  to  tradition 38 

15.  Belief  in  dreams,  oracles,  etc 39 

16.  Knowledge  of  myths 40 

17.  Sentiments  of  piety  proper  (sial^eta) 40 

a.  Moderation  (aw(J)poauvTQ,  (j,iq$&v  ayav) 44 

V.  CONCLUSION.  .  .  46 


A  STUDY  OF  PIETY  IN  THE  GREEK 
TRAGIC  CHORUS 

INTRODUCTION 

The  religion  of  the  ancient  Greeks  presents  a  fascinating 
study.  It  constitutes  a  phase  of  Greek  life,  which  only  in  very 
recent  times  has  received  serious  consideration,  but  fortunately 
at  present  enough  research  has  been  made  in  the  subject  to 
determine  at  least  its  general  outline.  To  the  modern  mind 
it  is  a  matter  of  great  interest  and  astonishment  to  note  as 
two  salient  and  remarkably  peculiar  characteristics  _of  Greek  1 
religion  its  utter  lack  of  dogma  and  its  marked  influence  on 
every  aspect  of  the  national  life  and  thought,  especially  the  l' 
drama  and  the  four  great  athletic  institutions.  But  the  Greek 
mind,  unlike  the  modern,  drew  no  line  of  demarcation  between 
the  religious  and  the  secular,  for  by  reason  of  the  ubiquity  of 
the  Greek  religious  influence  secularism  simply  did  not  exist 
in  Greek  life.  The  idea  that  comedy  had  a  religious  origin 
seems  to  us  moderns  well-nigh  preposterous;  but  we  can  hardly 
say  the  same  of  tragedy.  The  very  nature  of  tragedy  inevitably 
reveals  the  fundamental  human  need  of  the  consolatory  power 
of  religion.1  The  happy,  healthy,  prosperous  man  is  quite  apt 
to  let  human  nature  dominate  completely  his  thoughts  and 
actions;  but  if  stricken  with  adversity  or  placed  in  jeopardy, 
he  turns  instinctively  to  a  higher  Power  for  consolation,  realiz- 
ing in  this  predicament  that  the  help  of  his  fellow-man  is  utterly 
futile.  It  is  just  this  realization  of  man's  complete  dependence 
upon  a  higher  Being,  which  constitutes  the  nucleus,  the  quin- 
tessence, the  vital  meaning  of  religion. 

In  Greek  tragedy,  where  the  sense  of  man's  misfortune  has 
been  portrayed  with  a  profundity  of  understanding  character- 
istic of  no  other  literature,  we  shall  find  abundant  evidence  of 
the  innate  religious  spirit  in  man.  Flourishing  in  the  fifth 
century,  that  imposing  span  of  time  during  which  the  intellect 
received  an  impetus  for  development  more  powerful  than  at 

lThe  theory  of  William  Ridgeway  (The  Origin  of  Tragedy,  p.  93)  that 
Greek  tragedy  arose  from  the  worship  of  the  dead  seems  untenable. 

7 


8  A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus 

any  other  period  in  the  history  of  the  world,  tragedy  thus  em- 
bodied the  religious  ideas  of  the  Greeks  in  a  highly  advanced 
stage  of  evolution.  It  was  truly  the  Golden  Age  of  Greek 
history.  No  greater  tragedians  than  Aeschylus,  Sophocles  and 
Euripides  have  ever  lived,  and  their  extant  works  remain,  there- 
fore, a  priceless  literary  heritage. 


PERSONNEL  OF  THE  TRAGIC  CHORUS 

The  orthodox  system  of  religion  that  prevailed  throughout 
Greece  during  the  fifth  century  was  what  Gilbert  Murray  terms 
Olympianism.2  Zeus  is  the  supreme  god  of  this  anthropo- 
morphic hierarchy,  which  was  introduced  into  Greek  literature 
by  Homer,3  and  which  flourished  as  the  state  religion  till  it 
was  apparently  superseded,  at  least  among  the  thinking  classes, 
by  the  various  philosophical  schools  of  later  days.  Greek 
tragedy  fairly  bristles  with  Olympianism.  The  actors,  to  be 
sure,  voice  orthodox  sentiments  for  the  most  part,4  but  it  is 
the  chorus  XOCT'  ^OXTQV  that  constantly  admonishes  the  spectators 
to  preserve  a  pious  attitude  toward  the  gods.  Indeed,  the 
tragic  poets  seem  to  have  made  this  a  vital  function  of  the 
chorus.  Furthermore,  it  would  hardly  be  natural  to  find  un- 
orthodox ideas  emanating  from  a  company  of  sage  elders,  mild 
maidens  or  prosaic  matrons.  For  almost  all  the  tragedies 
possess  choruses  of  some  one  of  these  three  classes,  and  in  sev- 
eral instances, /notably  the  Eumenides,  the  Supplices  and  the 
Bacchce,  the  plays  actually  derive  their  titles  from  the  chorus. 
In  all  the  tragedies  of  Aeschylus  the  choruses  are  composed  either 
of  elders  or  of  women.  Euripides,  too,  is  remarkably  consistent 
in  this  matter:  in  fact,  if  exception  be  made  of  the  Rhesus ,5 
whose  chorus  is  represented  by  sentinels  of  the  Trojan  army, 
Euripides  will  be  found  to  be  virtually  in  accord  with  Aeschylus 
on  this  point.  In  only  one  play,  the  Hippolytus,  does  he  em- 
ploy young  men  as  a  chorus,  and  even  then  he  has  recourse  to 


2  Four  Stages  of  Greek  Religion,  chap.  II. 

3  This  religion,  of  course,  existed  and  developed  centuries  before  Homer. 

4  Sometimes  (e.  g.  Septem  223,  702;  P.  V.  938)  the  actors  deliver  unor- 
thodox utterances. 

6  Professor  W.  N.  Bates  (T.  A.  P.  A.,  vol.  xlvii)  has,  however,  clearly  shown 
the  Rhesus  to  be  genuine. 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  9 

an  unprecedented  phenomenon  in  tragedy,  a  double  chorus, 
or,  more  precisely,  two  choruses,  one  of  huntsmen,  the  com- 
panions of  Hippolytus,  and  the  other  of  women  of  Troezen. 
In  five  of  the  plays  of  Sophocles,  the  choruses  consist  of  maidens, 
women  or  elders.  The  Philoctetes,  with  both  actors  and  chorus 
composed  of  men,  reveals  thereby  a  unique  feature  in  Greek 
tragedy;  moreover,  since  the  entire  cast  of  characters  is  pos- 
sessed of  the  martial  spirit,  the  play  is  naturally  instinct  with 
the  warrior's  rugged  virility  unsoftened  by  woman's  inevitable 
power  of  pathos.  Scyrian  sailors  of  Neoptolemus'  crew  com- 
prise the  chorus  of  the  Philoctetes,  and  mariners  of  Salamis  that 
of  the  Ajax.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  these  two  choruses 
include  not  merely  young  men,  but  young  men  living  a  mari- 
time life. 

kjf,  as  seems  true,  we  find  the  ideas  of  the  sanctity  of  tradi- 
tion and  of  religious  conservatism  and  piety  most  firmly  rooted 
in  the  hearts  and  minds  of  sage  old  men,  who  have  lived  their 
allotted  threescore  years  and  ten;  of  submissive  maidens  reared 
in  homes  of  hallowed  atmosphere;  and  of  sober  matrons  who 
have  themselves  reared  these  maidens;  is  it  any  wonder  that 
the  Greek  tragic  poets  made  the  chorus,  which,  with  but  few 
exceptions,  comprised  such  a  personnel,  serve  primarily  the 
purpose  of  inculcating  in  the  hearts  of  the  spectators  its  own 
reverent  attitude  toward  the  state  religion  and  things  tradi- 
tional? 

It  would  be  of  absorbing  interest,  if  psychologically  possible, 
to  determine  whether  those  plays  which  are  named  after  the 
chorus  actually  exerted  a  stronger  influence  for  piety  over  the 
people.  Of  such  there  are  nine,  not  an  insignificant  proportion; 
and  of  these  nine  the  choruses  of  all  save  the  Persce  are  com- 
posed of  women  or  of  maidens.  It  might,  perhaps,  be  expected 
that  Euripides  contributes  the  majority  of  these  plays,  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  we  possess  nearly  three  times  as  many 
of  his  tragedies  as  of  those  of  Sophocles  or  Aeschylus.  But 
such  is  not  the  case;  for  Aeschylus  has  the  same  number  as 
Euripides,  each  contributing  four,  while  Sophocles  offers  but 
one.6 

8  Aesch.  Supplices,  Persce,  Choephori,  Eumenides. 
Eur.  Suppliants,  Bacchce,  Phoenissce,  Troades. 
Soph.  Trachinice. 


10  A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus 

An  interesting  comparison  is  afforded  by  two  plays  in  this 
list  bearing  curiously  enough  the  same  name,  but  dealing  with 
different  subjects,  viz.,  the  Supplices  of  Aeschylus  and  the 
Suppliants  of  Euripides,  usually  so  translated  to  avoid  con- 
fusion, but  both  entitled  'Ix£ci8es  in  the  Greek.  How  much 
more  effective  does  Aeschylus  render  his  play  by  entitling  it 
the  Suppliants  rather  than  the  Danaides!7  This,  the  earliest 
extant  specimen  of  Greek  tragedy,8  is  so  replete  with  the  spirit 
of  piety,  that  it  may  almost  be  described  as  one  long  continuous 
prayer.  The  title  Danaides  would  doubtless  have  failed  to 
suggest  to  the  spectators  any  religious  association;  in  fact, 
they  would  instinctively  recall  the  well-known  story  of  the 
daughters  of  Danaus  who  murdered  their  cousin-husbands  and 
thereby  suffered  dire  punishment  in  Hades;  and  this  popular 
conception,  which  doubtless  fostered  an  unsympathetic  atti- 
tude toward  the  Danaids,  was  just  what  Aeschylus  sought  to 
counteract  at  the  outset,  for  the  Supplices  forms  the  first  play 
of  a  trilogy  of  which  the  two  ensuing  parts  are  lost.  In  this 
play  we  see  most  clearly  the  dithyrambic  origin  of  tragedy. 
The  chorus  constitute  an  indispensable  element,  a  sine  qua  non, 
while  the  actors'  r61e  is  decidedly  subordinate.  In  no  other 
tragedy  do  we  find  such  prominence  assigned  to  the  chorus. 
With  the  development  of  tragedy,  however,  as  seen  in  the 
works  of  Sophocles  and  Euripides,  the  function  of  the  chorus, 
as  is  well  known,  gradually  dwindled  in  importance,  while 
that  of  the  actors  correspondingly  increased.  The  dramatic 
element,  stimulated  in  proportion  to  the  possibilities  of  the  plot, 
became  the  chief  object  of  interest;  so  that  we  find  in  certain 
plays  of  Euripides  that  the  chorus  had  little  or  nothing  to  do 
with  the  vital  action. 

Far  different  from  the  chorus  of  Aeschylus'  Supplices  is 
that  of  Euripides'  Suppliants.  So  far  as  concerns  the  plot 
and  its  logical  development,  the  chorus  in  Euripides'  Suppliants 
is  of  little  or  no  significance.  Being  the  mothers  of  Argive 
chiefs  slain  before  Thebes,  they  add  to  the  play  a  consummate 
touch  of  pathos  and  excite  sympathy  and  pity  in  the  hearts 
of  the  audience.  But  that  is  all.  The  dramatic  interest  cen- 


7  The  chorus  is  composed  of  the  daughters  of  Danaus. 

8  Its  archaic  character  proves  its  early  date,  which,  however,  cannot  be 
definitely  determined. 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  11 

ters  in  the  actors,  with  the  chorus  forming  a  conventionally 
attractive  but  unessential  adjunct.  The  purpose  of  Aeschylus 
in  writing  the  Supplices  was  purely  religious;  but  Euripides 
was  clearly  actuated  by  a  political  motive.  Ostensibly  treating 
the  tragic  story  of  the  struggle  between  Eteocles  and  Polynices, 
Euripides  is  in  reality  adroitly  alluding  to  contemporaneous 
history.  In  424  B.  C.  the  Athenian  army  had  suffered  a  defeat 
at  Delium  and  the  Thebans  had  refused  to  hand  over  the  Athe- 
nian dead  for  burial.  Euripides,  producing  the  Suppliants 
three  years  later,  recalls  to  the  minds  of  the  people  these  recent 
untoward  incidents,  and  urges  Athens  to  promote  friendship 
with  Argos.  The  Supplices  of  Aeschylus,  on  the  contrary, 
is  a  virile  defense  of  orthodox  Olympianism.  Zeus,  the  all- 
highest  Olympian  deity,  is  the  main  object  of  the  chorus'  sup- 
plication. And  why?  Is  he  not  really  the  Danaids'  progenitor, 
who,  falling  in  love  with  the  hapless  Argive,  lo,  begat  their 
race?  It  is  rather  difficult  to  ascertain  Euripides'  reason,  if 
any  reason  there  was,  for  naming  his  play  the  Suppliants, 
especially  when  we  realize  how  natural  it  was  for  Aeschylus 
to  give  his  tragedy  that  title.  Surely  we  cannot  attribute  it 
to  mere  caprice.  Let  us  then  consider  for  a  moment  the  per- 
sonnel of  the  chorus.  Mothers  of  the  slain  Argive  chiefs  and 
therefore  elderly,  if  not  actually  old,  women  we  find  them  to 
be.  Now  judging  from  what  we  have  of  Greek  tragedy,  we 
may  safely  conclude  that  the  tragic  poets  very  seldom  em- 
ployed old  women  to  represent  the  chorus.  In  fact  the  Sup- 
pliants is  the  only  extant  play  with  such  a  chorus.  There  is 
no  reason  to  suppose  that  old  women  would  find  it  harder  to 
execute  the  choral  dances  than  old  men,  and  yet  there  are  as 
many  as  eight  plays  with  choruses  composed  of  elders.9  Perhaps 
Euripides  felt  that  the  sense  of  bereavement  experienced  by 
the  mothers  of  the  slain  chieftains  was  so  overwhelmingly 
bitter  as  to  offer  ample  artistic  justification  for  naming  the 
play  after  them.  At  any  rate,  the  strong  pathetic  appeal  of 
this  tragedy  is  undeniable,  and  a  tragedy,  to  be  either  ephem- 
erally  successful  or  lastingly  great,  must  for  one  thing  sound 
a  deep  note  of  pathos. 

9  Aesch.  Persce,  Agamemnon. 

Soph.  Antigone,  Oedipus  Tyrannus,  Oedipus  Coloneus. 
Eur.  Alcestis,  Hercules  Furens,  Heraclidce. 


12  A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus 

In  a  marked  majority  of  the  plays  the  chorus  consists  either 
of  maidens  or  matrons.  Of  Aeschylus'  tragedies  there  are 
five  with  women  or  maidens  for  chorus;  Sophocles  contributes 
only  two  such  plays;  but  in  Euripides  we^  find  the  vast  pre- 
ponderance of  fourteen.  Out  of  a  total  of  thirty-two  plays, 
therefore,  eight  have  choruses  consisting  of  elders,  four  of  young 
men  and  twenty-one  of  maidens  or  matrons.10 

RELATIVE  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  CHORUS  IN  AESCHYLUS, 
SOPHOCLES  AND  EURIPIDES 

Why,  then,  was  a  chorus  of  women  so  common?  The  answer 
is  not  hard  to  find.  Such  a  chorus  possessed  two  distinct  ad- 
vantages. In  the  first  place,  women  could  fulfill  the  prime 
and  paramount  duty  of  maintaining  religious  conservatism  and 
tradition  just  as  well,  nay  better,  than  men,  for  women  are 
naturally  more  conservative  and  religious  than  men;  and  in 
the  next  place,  they  produced  obviously  enough  a  much  more 
artistic  effect  in  the  dance.  Euripides,  by  reason  of  his  icon- 
oclastic tendencies  in  matters  religious,  added  a  somewhat 
secular  touch  to  the  character  of  the  tragic  chorus,  yet  despite 
his  broad  views  on  religion  he  never  presumed  to  uproot  the 
chorus'  firmly  planted  custom  of  preaching  piety;  and  his  char- 
acters also  are  ever  so  often  of  orthodox  leanings.11  His  wide 
popularity  in  antiquity  may  well  have  been  due  to  his  con- 
summate skill  in  reconciling  and  blending  a  sacrosanct  ortho- 
doxy with  the  realism  of  human  sin.  ^Euripides  in  particular 
has  made  his  characters  thoroughly  human.  This  is  evident 
not  merely  on  a  perusal  of  his  plays  but  also  from  a  statement 
of  his  elder  contemporary,  Sophocles,  who  said  that  he  himself 
drew  men  as  they  ought  to  be  and  Euripides  as  they  were.12 
While  never  commonplace,  Euripides  is,  after  all,  a  poet  of 
the  people,  and  his  works  reflect  the  realities  in  the  life  of  the 
people  much  more  frequently  and  clearly  than  do  those  of 


10  According  to  this  enumeration,  there  are  in  all  thirty-three  plays,  the 
discrepancy  being  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Hippolytus  must,  by  reason  of  its 
double  chorus,  be  counted  twice.     The  Rhesus  is  regarded  as  genuine  and 
therefore  included. 

11  Cf.  Andromache,  Orestes,  Oedipus,  Adrastus. 

12  Arist.  Poetics  1460  b  34  ff. 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  13 

Sophocles.  And  yet  as  a  man,  he  eschewed  the  plaudits  of 
the  populace  and  sought  the  seclusion  of  the  scholar's  closet. 
*  As  can  be  seen  from  a  study  of  Euripides'  plays  and  also 
from  a  statement  of  Aristotle,13  the  function  of  the  chorus  in 
forming  an  integral  part  of  the  whole  has  evidently  undergone 
considerable  modification.  This  Aristotle  considers  a  defect  in 
Euripides'  technique.  Sophocles,  so  Aristotle  thinks,  has  dofie^ 
right  in  adopting  Aeschylus'  method  of  treatment  of  the  chorus^ 
by  which  a  vital  share  in  the  plot  was  given  that  body.)But 
tragedy,  in  its  historical  descent  from  the  cloudland  of  Aeschylus 
to  the  terra  firma  of  Euripides,  was  bound  to  undergo  accom- 
panying changes.  In  Aeschylus  the  chorus  is  indispensable  or  _ 
essential  to  the  development  of  the  plot;  in  Sophocles  we  begin  ~1  L 
to  note  a  distinct  diminution  of  its  importance,  despite  its 
integral  share  in  the  action;  and  lastly  in  Euripides  the  sep- 
aration is  all  but  complete.  To  the  actors  alone  is  entrusted 
the  care  of  dealing  effectively  with  the  dramatic  element.  Such 
a  development  was  not  at  all  unnatural;  and  in  the  later  comedy 
of  Menander,  we  discover  this  trend  carried  to  its  logical  end 
in  the  lack  of  a  chorus  altogether.  The  brilliance  of  the  re- 
ligious influence  in  Greek  tragedy  paled  little  by  little  with 
the  years.  Consequently  the  significance  of  the  chorus  as 
the  predominant  agent  of  that  influence  dwindled  in  propor- 
tion. And  yet  even  the  most  heretical  of  Euripides'  plays 
contain  a  reactionary  element  in  the  person  of  the  chorus. 

PHASES  OF  THE  CHORUS'  PIETY 

1.  Deification  of  Abstract  Ideas 

Since  Olympianism  is  essentially  anthropomorphic,  the  chorus 
invoke  for  the  most  part  personal,  incarnate  deities.  They 
must  have  a  concrete  object  to  worship,  for  with  the  gift  of 
abstract  speculation  they  are  in  no  wise  endued.  Aeschylus 
is  preeminently  inclined  to  give  concrete  expression  and  per- 
sonification to  abstract  ideas.  In  the  Prometheus  Vinctus  two 
of  the  characters  represented  are  Power  and  Might;  and  in 
the  Choephori  (244  f.)  Electra  invokes  "  Power  and  Justice  along 


"Arist.  op.  cit.   1456  a  25  ff.:    y.al  T&V  x°P^v  8s  sva  8ei  6-JioXagstv  TWV 
xal  ^opcov  elvai  TOU   8Xou  xal    auvaYwvf^eaOai    ^   waiuep 
o«XX' 


14  A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus 

with  Zeus,  the  greatest  of  all."  Themis,  whom  we  may  regard 
as  personifying  divine  law,  is  the  daughter  of  Zeus  Klarios, 
i.  e.  the  Apportioner.14 

a.  Destiny 

Human  destiny  also  is  commonly  a  goddess.15  •  Aeschylus 
describes  her  as  the  "armorer  of  Justice/'16  and  apparently 
superior  even  to  Zeus.17  Sometimes,  however,  as  in  the  Sup- 
plices  of  Aeschylus,  Destiny  and  Zeus  are  to  be  identified.18 
Here  Fate  enforces  her  decrees  through  the  will  of  Zeus.  This 
condition,  however,  is  but  natural,  when  we  reflect  that  the 
Supplices  represents  a  comparatively  early  stage  in  the  develop- 
ment of  tragedy,  that  at  this  period  the  personification  of  ab- 
stract ideas  as  separate,  individual  divinities  was  probably 
unknown  to  the  devotees  of  Olympianism  and  that  in  this  play 
Zeus  is  the  particular  object  of  the  chorus'  supplications.  Zeus 
is  their  ancestor  and  the  founder  of  their  family.  They  are 
highly  conscious  of  their  kinship  with  the  father  of  the  gods. 
This  play  furnishes  us,  then,  with  a  striking  example  of  anthro- 
pomorphism in  Greek  religion.  This  idea  of  the  exercise  of 
fate  through  the  will  of  the  gods  finds  expression  also  in  the 
Persians,  another  of  the  earlier  plays  of  Aeschylus.19  The  later 
plays  of  Aeschylus,  however,  reveal  the  anthropomorphic  con- 
ception of  Destiny  as  a  power  superior  to  Zeus.20  So  also  do 
the  plays  of  Sophocles,21  who  speaks  of  Fate  as  "common  to  all 
mortals."22  "Dread  is  its  power  which  neither  wealth  nor 
Ares  nor  strong  tower  nor  sea-beaten  ship  can  escape."23  Euri- 
pides likewise  bears  witness  to  this  idea:  "No  refuge  is  there 
from  fate  and  the  inevitable,"  sigh  the  chorus  in  the  Hippo- 
lytus.™  Again  in  the  Heraclidce  they  proclaim  the  decree  of 
Heaven  whereby  no  man  can  escape  his  destiny.25  He  who  is 
now  prosperous  may,  through  the  force  of  destiny,  encounter 
adversity.26 


14Aesch.  Supp.  360.     Sophocles,  too,  calls  her  "  heavenly"  (El.   1064). 

16  P.  V.  511;  Cho.  909;  Ph.  1466.  21  Ph.  1466. 
"Cfc>.647.  "J0J.860. 

17  P.  7.  518.  23  Ant.  951  ff. 

18  Supp.  1048  f .  24  Hipp.  1256. 

19  Pers.  102.  26  Herod.  615. 

20  Cho.  305,  909;  P.  V.  516.  26  Eur.  Supp.  608  f. 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  15 

b.  Necessity 

Another  pure  abstraction,  which  the  Greek  mind  associated 
with  fate,  was  that  of  necessity.  In  the  Alcestis  the  chorus, 
making  Necessity  a  goddess,  pay  a  glowing  tribute  to  her  om- 
nipotence.27 "Naught  mightier  than  Necessity  have  I  found."28 
"Tis  with  thy  help  that  Zeus  fulfills  his  will."29  By  this  latter 
statement  the  chorus  imply  that  Necessity  also,  like  Fate, 
is  superior  to  Zeus.  Aeschylus,  too,  personifies  the  concept 
of  necessity  in  recognition  of  its  supreme  power.30  Both  Euri- 
pides and  Aeschylus  characterize  it  as  "relentless,"  Euripides 
rendering  thereby  a  very  effective  ending  to  the  Hecuba.31 

c.  Time 

In  the  Heraclidce  the  chorus  personify  Time  as  the  son  of 
Cronus.32  Sophocles,  too,  deifies  this  abstraction,33  while 
Aeschylus  bestows  upon  Time  an  epithet  usually  applied  to 
Zeus.34  In  Sophocles  we  find  Opportunity  also  personified.35 
All  three  tragic  poets  give  expression  to  the  kindliness  and 
healing  power  of  Time.36 

d.  Justice 

Of  all  personified  abstractions,  however,  Justice  stands  first 
and  foremost.  In  the  Choephori  she  is  called  the  virgin  daughter 
of  Zeus  and  pictured  by  the  chorus  as  actually  taking  Orestes 
by  the  hand.37  Time  and  again  the  chorus  dwell  with  hearty 
fondness  upon  the  corrective,  inevitable  power  of  Justice  as 
implied  in  the  lex  talionis.  They  maintain,  like  the  Hebrews 
of  the  Old  Testament,  a  strictly  literal  attitude  toward  the 
vindicating  power  of  Justice.  They  can  see  only  the  letter  of 
the  law.  The  spirit  is  lacking.  Mercy  must  not  temper  justice. 
The  Christian  doctrine  of  loving  one's  enemy  seems  preposterous 
to  the  chorus.  We  need  only  refer  to  the  Supplices  of  Aeschylus 
to  perceive  the  characteristic  sentiment  of  the  chorus  toward 
their  enemies.38  "Bless  us,  but  curse  our  enemies"  is  the  sub- 


27  Ale.  962-980.  34  Cho.  965   (xavTeXfc);  cf.  Septem 

28  Ib.  965  f.  117. 

29  Ib.  978  f  .  36  El  75  f  .  ;  Ph.  837. 

30  P.  V.  514  f.  "  Cho.  965;  Eum.  286;  Soph.  El  179; 

31  Ib.  1052;  Hec.  1295.  H.  F.  805  f. 

32  Herod.  900.  "  Cho.  948  ff. 

33  El.  179.  38  Supp.  30  ff. 


16  A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus 

stance  of  their  utterance,  which  is  clearly  echoed  in  the  Septem.™ 
In  the  Choephori  Electra  asks  the  chorus  if  she  can  in  all  piety 
pray  that  the  slayer  be  slain,  and  the  chorus  promptly  reply 
in  the  affirmative.40  Then  again  the  chorus  imagine  Justice 
as  crying  aloud:  "For  word  of  hate  let  word  of  hate  be  paid 
and  for  murderous  blow  let  him  pay  murderous  blow."41  " Blood 
that  is  shed  calls  for  other  blood  in  requital:  this  is  the  law."42 
Justice  is  nurtured  in  the  hearts  of  the  chorus.  "We  claim 
to  be  righteous-judging,"  declare  the  Eumenides.43  In  the 
Supplices  the  Danaids  seek  the  protection  of  Pelasgus,  the 
Argive  king,  by  appealing  to  his  sense  of  justice.  "Lend  us 
thy  aid,  0  King,  and  thus  ally  thyself  with  Justice,  for  Justice 
ever  champions  the  cause  of  her  allies  and  must  inevitably 
triumph."44  This  thought  is  presently  reechoed  by  the  chorus, 
when  they  urge  the  king  to  choose  Justice  as  his  ally  and  to 
render  holy  judgment  in  sight  of  Heaven.45 

Since  Greek  religion  granted  safety  and  protection  to  the 
suppliant,  guilty  though  he  might  be  of  a  heinous  offense,  the 
chorus  with  characteristic  piety  were  scrupulously  careful  in 
the  observance  of  this  rite.  When  Copreus,  the  herald  of 
Eurystheus,  king  of  the  Argives,  comes  to  Marathon  to  demand 
the  surrender  of  Heracles'  children,  who  as  suppliants  have 
taken  refuge  at  the  altar  of  Zeus,  the  chorus  are  quick  to  remind 
him  of  the  suppliant's  sacred  right:  "  'Tis  fitting,  stranger,  that 
reverence  be  shown  to  suppliants  of  the  gods,  not  that  they 
be  dragged  away  from  the  gods'  shrines  with  violent  hand; 
for  the  goddess,  Justice,  will  not  suffer  this."46  Now  since 
Zeus  was  preeminently  the  god  of  suppliants,  it  would  be  only 
natural  for  the  chorus  to  invoke  his  name  here,  as  they  do  in 
the  Supplices  of  Aeschylus.  But  Euripides,  as  is  well  known, 
was  not  the  religious  conservative  that  Aeschylus  was,  so  that 
his  preference  for  a  personified  abstraction,  which  even  in 
Aeschylus'  time  had  endeared  itself  to  the  chorus,  and  which 
Euripides  here  substitutes  for  Zeus  incarnate,  is  hardly  sur- 
prising. "The  man  who  preserves  the  light  of  Justice  shall 


39  Septem  481  ff.,  626  ff.  43  Eum.  312. 

40  Cho.  122  f.  44  Supp.  342. 
«  Ib.  309  ff.  Tucker.  «  76.  395  f. 

«  Ib.  400  ff.  4«  Heracl  101  ff. 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  17 

escape  the  censure  of  his  fellow-men;  be  bold  then  to  do  right." 
Thus  do  the  chorus  admonish  Theseus.47 

Aeschylus  twice  speaks  in  his  choral  odes  of  the  altar  of 
Justice.48  In  both  instances,  however,  the  use  of  the  word  is 
purely  figurative.  So,  too,  Theonoe  speaks  of  the  great  shrine 
of  Justice  that  is  reared  in  her  nature.49  In  the  Antigone  of 
Sophocles,  Justice  is  pictured  as  sitting  on  a  lofty  thronej50^ 
but  here,  as  Jebb  has  pointed  out,51  it  is  merely  Justice  in  the 
form  of  the  law  of  the  state,  which  Sophocles  clearly  distinguishes 
from  divine  Justice  that  guides  the  course  of  Antigone. 

"  Better  it  is,"  say  the  maidens  of  Phthia,  who  compose  the 
chorus  of  the  Andromache,  " better  not  to  have  a  victory  that 
carries  with  it  a  bad  repute  than  to  cheat  justice  through  envy 
and  power."52  The  Bacchanals  proclaim  their  hearty  wish  to 
honor  the  gods  and  to  spurn  the  ways  of  injustice;53  while  the 
Phthian'maidens  disdain  ever  to  wield  unjust  power  in  home  and 
city.54  In  the  two  latter  passages,  Euripides  expresses  the 
idea  of  injustice  by  the  phrase  £?w  Bfoas,  which  may  be  fig- 
uratively rendered  ' 'outside  the  pale  of  justice."  The  chorus, 
always  sure  of  the  ultimate  triumph  of  justice,  however  gloomy 
the  outlook  may  be,  is  ever  happy  to  celebrate  its  triumph.55 
In  speaking  of  the  death  of  Aegisthus  at  the  hands  of  Orestes, 
the  chorus  pay  tribute  to  the  great  might  of  justice.56  Simi- 
larly, in  regard  to  the  death  of  Clytemnestra  at  the  hands  of 
her  children,  the  chorus  describe  the  victory  of  justice  in  these 
words:  " Verily  doth  God  mete  out  justice  in  His  good  time." 
Here  again  are  linked  the  ideas  of  time  and  justice.67  In  the 
Heraclidce  the  chorus  of  old  men  of  Marathon  take  pride  in 
saying  that  their  land  has  always  wished  to  give  to  the  helpless 
the  benefit  of  justice's  aid.58  They  feel  that  the  expedition 
of  the  Argive  king  has  been  unjustly  undertaken,  and  so  pray 
that  their  patron  goddess,  Pallas  Athena,  may  stop  the  advance 
of  the  impious  invader.59  They  are  confident  in  asserting  that 

47  Eur.  Supp.  564  f .  54  Andr.  784  ff. 

48  Ag.  383;  Eum.  539.  B5  Eur.  El  877  f. 

49  Hel  1002.  66  76.  958. 
**Ant.  853.  6776.  1169. 

61  See  his  note  on  Ant.  853  ff.  88  Herod.  329  f . 

62  Andr.  779  f .  69  76.  770  ff . 
83  Bacch.  1010  f . 


18  A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus 

their  city  possesses  the  path  of  justice.60  The  chorus'  sympathy 
goes  out  to  Medea  in  her  sorry  plight;  yet  they  do  not  for  a 
moment  doubt  that  Jason  will  receive  his  just  deserts.61 

When  Electra  tells  the  chorus  of  Apollo's  decree  bidding 
her  and  Orestes  slay  their  mother,  the  chorus  declare  the  com- 
mand to  have  been  issued  in  all  justice.62  Again,  in  speaking 
of  the  fate  of  Helen,  the  chorus  readily  believe  that  the  gods 
have  justly  punished  the  royal  adulteress.63  They  know,  too, 
that  Eteocles'  conduct  toward  his  brother,  in  refusing  to  yield 
him  the  royal  power  in  turn,  is  audaciously  unjust.64  Similar 
to  the  view  expressed  by  the  chorus  in  the  Heraclidce,  that  their 
city  possesses  the  path  of  justice,  is  the  one  set  forth  in  the 
Suppliants,  where  the  city  is  said  to  revere  Justice.65  When 
Orestes  has  made  known  his  firm  determination  to  slay  Aegis- 
thus,  the  chorus  hail  the  planting  of  the  anvil  of  Justice,  with 
Fate  forging  the  fatal  blade.66  The  metaphor  is  typically 
Aeschylean  and  singularly  forceful.  In  the  Agamemnon  Justice 
is  the  great  teacher  of  sinners;67  while  in  the  Choephori  there 
are  two  passages  containing  the  phrase  8i&  A  (/,«<;,  by  which 
we  are  clearly  to  understand  the  goddess  as  issuing  a  command 
or  lending  her  aid.68  It  is  Justice  who  decrees  that  the  sword 
of  vengeance  shall  plunge  through  the  heart  of  the  murderer, 
or  who  guides  with  ever  watchful  care  the  words  of  the  chorus 
in  the  utterance  of  right  and  piety. 

Justice  shows  no  partiality  to  wealth.  Aeschylus  gives  a 
vivid  comparison  of  the  sooty  but  virtuous  hovel  with  the 
golden  albeit  sin-stained  mansion.69  The  material  murk  of 
the  poor  man's  dwelling  is  dispelled  by  the  spiritual  brilliance 
of  Justice;  who  chooses  to  make  her  home  with  the  pious  and 
the  good,  be  their  abode  ever  so  humble;  but  the  lordly  edifice 
of  the  wealthy,  gleaming  with  the  splendor  of  material  pros- 
perity, yet  cursed  with  the  insidious  sin  of  wanton  bloodshed, 
is  an  object  of  utter  loathing  to  Justice.  With  averted  eyes 
she  forsakes  the  place  to  enter  the  habitation  of  the  holy.70 


60  Heracl.  901.  66  Cho.  643  f. 

61  Med.  1231  f.  67  Ag.  250. 

62  Or.  195.  es  Cho.  642,  787. 

63  76.  1361  f .  69  Ag.  773  ff. 

64  Phoen.  258  ff.  ™  76.  777  f . 
"5  Eur.  Supp.  379. 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  19 

Any  display  of  unblushing  insolence  repels  and  disgusts  the 
chorus.  When  Aegisthus  voluntarily  admits  having  slain 
Agamemnon,  the  chorus  make  bold  to  assure  him  that  his 
head  shall  not  escape  the  curse  which  it  justly  deserves.71  A 
reverence  for  justice  implies  a  wholesome,  reasonable  sense  of 
fear,  which  all  mortals  should  foster.72  The  chorus  hi  the_ 
Eumenides  consider  themselves  as  the  true  dispensers  of  justice, 
and  take  the  view  that  Orestes,  since  he  has  murdered  his  mother, 
has  acted  unjustly,  and  unless  he  is  punished  accordingly,  the 
Temple  of  Justice  will  collapse.  But  in  this  play  our  sympathy 
is  for  Orestes  and  his  cause;  and  Aeschylus  undoubtedly  meant 
it  to  be  so.  Here  plainly  is  a  case  where  we  take  issue  with 
the  chorus  on  the  idea  of  retributive  justice.  Guided  solely 
by  the  letter  of  the  law,  like  Shylock,  they  run  amuck.  Justice 
decides  in  Orestes'  favor,  for  he  has  obeyed  Apollo's  injunc- 
tions and  Athena  has  cast  the  vital  vote  for  his  acquittal. 

The  impious  act  of  dragging  away  a  suppliant  from  the  altar 
is,  as  we  have  already  seen,73  strictly  prohibited  by  Justice; 
and  in  the  Supplices  the  Danaids  admonish  the  king  not  to 
dare  to  behold  the  suppliant  torn  from  the  gods'  statues  in 
defiance  of  justice,  lest  his  sin  rest  as  a  curse  upon  his  house 
and  children.  " Consider  this,"  they  say,  "that  Zeus'  commands 
are  just."74  "An  evil  thing  it  is,  0  city,"  declare  the  elders 
of  Marathon,  "if  we  betray  suppliant  strangers  at  the  command 
of  our  Argos.  Zeus  is  my  ally,  therefore  I  have  no  fear;  Zeus 
justly  favors  me."75  In  the  Supplices  Aeschylus  alludes  to  a 
certain  moral  code  comparable  with  our  decalogue,  stating 
that  the  respectful  reverence  on  the  part  of  children  for  their 
parents  forms  the  third  commandment  written  by  highest- 
honored  Justice.76  Zeus  is  said  to  have  eyes  of  justice;77  and 
the  play  concludes  with  the  following  sentiment  of  the  chorus: 
"I  am  content  if  heaven  send  that  judgment  side  with  Justice, 
through  means  of  deliverance  sought  for  by  my  prayers."78 
The  chorus  have  a  rebuke  for  Eteocles,  when  he  insolently 
declares  his  refusal  to  surrender  the  throne  to  his  brother: 
"Fair  words  befit  not  unfair  deeds;  this  is  not  noble  but  offensive 

71  Ag.  1612  ff.  "  Herod.  763  ff. 

72  Eum.  521  ff.  76  Supp.  707  ff. 

73  Herod.  101.  77  76.  814. 

74  Aesch.  Supp.  429  ff.  7*  76.  1072  ff.  Tucker. 


20  A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus 

to  Justice."79  Here  Eteocles  sophist! cally  argues  that  to  do 
wrong  is  perfectly  fair,  when  a  throne  is  at  stake,  but  that  the 
fear  and  love  of  God  are  in  all  other  things  absolutely  essential. 
In  the  Choephori  the  chorus  pray  that  Orestes'  cause  may  find 
fulfillment  "in  the  path  that  Justice  treads."80  "The  man, 
who  of  his  own  accord  and  without  compulsion  is  just,  will  not 
be  unblessed;  never  will  utter  ruin  seize  him."81  But  the  unjust 
man,  when  at  last  he  is  caught  in  the  eddies  of  adversity,  cries 
out  in  his  struggle  to  the  gods  for  deliverance;  but  his  prayer 
is  of  no  avail;  to  his  supplications  the  gods  are  deaf.82  The 
Danaids  pray  the  gods  of  birth  and  race  to  bless  their  fate  with 
justice,  and  with  zealous  hatred  of  wanton  insolence  to  con- 
summate for  them  lawful  marriages.83  The  Theban  maidens 
composing  the  chorus  of  the  Septem  entreat  the  gods  to  harken 
in  all  righteousness  to  their  prayers,84  for  their  prayers  are 
themselves  righteous.85  "May  the  gods  grant  good  fortune 
to  our  champion,  Eteocles,  as  he  goes  forth  in  just  defense  of 
the  city,"  plead  the  chorus.86  But  here  we  may  well  question 
whether  Eteocles'  conduct  is  justified.  Our  sympathy  is  nat- 
urally for  the  injured  Polynices.  We  feel  rather  that  his  cause 
is  justly  to  be  espoused.  We  are  again,  as  in  the  Eumenides, 
privileged  to  differ  with  the  chorus  on  the  idea  of  justice.  But 
the  chorus  do  not  continue  throughout  the  play  to  support 
Eteocles  unanimously.  At  the  end  we  detect  a  division  of 
sentiment.  Half  the  chorus  in  sympathy  with  Antigone  re- 
solve to  share  with  her  the  honor  of  burying  Polynices;  while 
the  other  half  continue  to  maintain  their  allegiance  to  Eteocles, 
"as  the  state  and  the  right  enjoin."87  Such  dissension  on  the 
part  of  the  chorus  is  nowhere  else  in  tragedy  to  be  found,  and 
coming  from  Aeschylus  it  seems  almost  heretical.  Both  Soph- 
ocles and  Euripides  preserve  in  their  choruses  complete  har- 
mony of  opinion. 

Orestes'  interpretation  of  his  mother's  dream  as  related  to 
him  by  the  chorus  meets  with  their  ready  commendation.88 
In  him  the  chorus  recognize  their  champion  of  justice,  who  has 


79  Phoen.  526  f .  84  Septem  171  f . 

80  Cho.  308.  85  76.  626. 

81  Eum.  550  ff.  88  76.  417  ff. 

82  76.  558  f.  87  76.  1073  f . 

83  Supp.  78  ff .  88  Cho.  551  f. 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  21 

but  to  command  his  charges  and  they  forthwith  obey.  Once 
the  chorus  realize  their  superior  to  be  actuated  by  justice,  they 
display  docility. 

After  Electra's  mordant  denunciation  of  her  mother,89  the 
chorus  notice  that  Clytemnestra  becoming  angry  no  longer 
cares  whether  or  not  -justice  be  with  her.  In  their  invocation- 
to  Athena,  the  chorus  implore  deliverance  from  the  bane  of 
exile,  citing  in  support  of  their  appeal  their  love  of  virtue  and 
justice.90 

In  sharp  contrast  with  the  chorus'  defense  of  Eteocles' conduct91 
stands  the  attitude  of  the  Phoenician  maidens  toward  the  cause 
of  Polynices.92  Euripides  no  doubt  deeply  sympathized  with 
Polynices  and  his  feeling  is  consequently  reflected  by  the  chorus. 
Believing  the  cause  of  Polynices  to  be  just,  the  chorus,  we  may 
safely  assume,  voiced  the  sentiment  of  the  common  people; 
and  by  reason  of  this  tendency  of  Euripides  to  make  himself 
the  spokesman  of  public  opinion,  the  Phoenissce  doubtless  proved 
to  be  a  far  more  popular  play  than  the  Septem. 

"He,  who  honors  the  laws  of  the  land  and  that  justice  which 
he  has  sworn  by  the  gods  to  observe,  makes  prosperous  his 
city;  but  the  man  who  out  of  rashness  consorts  with  sin  makes 
of  himself  an  outcast.  May  he  neither  share  my  hearth  nor 
think  as  I  do,"  plead  the  chorus  of  Theban  elders.93  A  man 
should  always  say  what  is  just,  but  in  so  doing  should  not  un- 
leash his  tongue's  envious  sting  of  revilement.94  The  chorus 
of  Bacchanals,  though  they  are  sorry  for  Cadmus  in  his  bereave- 
ment, nevertheless  feel  that  Pentheus  has  received  due  punish- 
ment for  flouting  Bacchus.95  In  the  Hecuba  also,  the  chorus 
bear  witness  to  the  stern  retribution  of  justice96:  "How  in- 
tolerable, wretch,  are  the  evils  wreaked  on  thee!  For  thy 
disgraceful  deeds,  Polymestor,  hath  God  with  heavy  hand  laid 
on  thee  an  awful  penalty."  Prosperity  and  injustice  are  in- 
compatible; the  safe  course  always  demands  the  guidance  of 
justice.97  Gladly  the  chorus  hail  the  death  of  the  upstart, 
Lycus,  who,  flourishing  for  a  time  in  spite  of  justice,  at  length 


89  Soph.  El.  558-609.  84  Ph.  1140  ff. 

90  Heracl  775  ff.  »5  Bacch.  1327  f . 

91  Septem  417  ff.  ••  Hec.  1085  ff. 

92  Phoen.  258  ff.  "  Hel.  1030  f. 

93  Ant.  369  ff. 


22  A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus 

feels  the  vengeful  hand  of  Heracles.  Injustice  cannot  forever 
prevail.  There  must  come  a  change  for  the  better.  He  who 
once  was  unjustly  exalted  now  of  necessity  stands  before  the 
tribunal  of  Justice  to  receive  his. sentence  of  death.98  "Hail, 
0  Justice!"99  "There  has  come  retribution  which  the  ruler 
of  the  land  never  in  his  heart  expected  to  suffer/'100  The  base- 
born  usurper  now  proves  by  his  wretched  overthrow  that  justice 
still  pleases  the  gods.101  So,  too,  the  man  who  spurns  the  great 
altar  of  Justice  is  in  turn  spurned  to  his  doom  by  the  gods,  whose 
ears  are  ever  deaf  to  his  prayers.102  The  sight  of  the  herald 
who  comes  bringing  news  of  Agamemnon's  triumphal  return  is 
hailed  by  the  chorus  with  fervent  anxiety.  One  of  the  elders 
expresses  hope  of  joyful  tidings,  while  another  voices  his  senti- 
ment in  these  words:  "Whoever  prays  for  other  than  good 
news  for  his  city,  may  he  reap  the  fruit  of  his  mind's  sin!"103 
"The  house  that  cherishes  righteousness  is  always  destined  to 
be  blessed  with  children."104  The  murder  of  her  father  stirs 
Electra  to  righteous  indignation  which  ought  ever  to  be  un- 
flinching till  the  guilty  pay  the  penalty  for  their  sin.105  The 
stealth  of  the  sinner  is  never  a  match  for  the  vigilant  mind 
of  Retribution.106  "Justice  breathes  fatal  wrath  upon  her  ene- 
mies."107 "If  a  man  have  no  fear  of  Justice  and  reap  not  his 
reward  honestly,  may  an  evil  fate  seize  him."108  To  Pentheus 
the  Bacchanals  apply  three  epithets,  which  to  them  are  most 
abhorrent:  godless,  lawless  and  wicked  is  he.  "Let  Justice 
come  and  run  her  sword  clean  through  his  throat!"109  When 
Medea  is  in  the  throes  of  despondency  by  reason  of  Jason's 
infidelity,  the  chorus  bid  her  cease  worrying,  for  Zeus  will  see 
that  her  cause  is  duly  vindicated.110  "Ever  just  are  the  gods 
who  allot  to  each  mortal  his  fate,"  cry  the  suppliant  mothers.111 
"Murder  demands  just  requital,  and  the  gods  grant  to  men 
relief  from  woes  unjustly  suffered."112 


98  H.  F.  734  f .  10<5  76.  946  f. 

99  76.  736.  107  76.  952. 

100  76.  743  f .  108  0.  T.  884  ff . 
101 76.  81  Off.  109 Bacch.  993  f. 

102  Ag.  381  ff.  ™Med.  157. 

103  76.  501  f.  m  Eur.  Supp.  610  f. 

104  76.  761  f.  11276.  614  ff. 
108  Cho.  455. 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  23 

e.  Time  and  Justice  Combined 

We  cannot  but  feel  that  the  ideas  of  time  and  justice  are 
often  mutually  complementary.  In  a  certain  description  of 
the  workings  of  justice,  the  conception  of  time  is  immediately 
and  inevitably  called  up  in  the  mind;113  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
when  the  chorus  in  the  Hercules  Furens114  aver  that  time  h~as~ 
been  the  means  of  revealing  Hercules'  might,  we  instinctively 
feel  that  the  justice  of  the  hero's  cause  has  thus  been  duly 
vindicated.  The  Agamemnon  affords  a  striking  example  of 
this  cooperation  of  time  and  justice  for  the  consummation  of 
right:  the  man  who  has  unjristly  achieved  prosperity  becomes 
the  prey  of  the  black  Erinyes,  who,  representing  Justice  in- 
carnate and  aided  by  Time,  envelop  their  victim  in  the  obscuring 
cloud  of  adversity.115  Though  it  may  be  late  in  coming,  justice 
never  fails.116  So  also  in  the  form  of  heavy  retribution,  justice 
came  in  time  to  the  sons  of  Priam.117  In  the  Choephori  Time 
may  plausibly  be  regarded  as  synonymous  with  Justice.118 
Here  it  is  seen  to  purge  the  hearth  of  its  pollution,  or  in  other 
words,  to  right  the  wrong.  Elsewhere  Aeschylus  employs  a 
striking  nautical  metaphor  to  impress  upon  the  minds  of  his 
audience  the  fatal  course  of  the  unjust  man:  "I  say  that  the 
man  who  transgresses  in  daring  defiance,  and  acts  for  the  most 
part  in  a  random  way  without  justice,  will  in  time  haul  down 
his  sail  perforce,  when  trouble  has  overtaken  him,  and  his 
yard-arms  are  breaking."119  The  chorus  afford  Electra  con- 
solation in  assuring  the  hapless  young  woman  that  "the  god- 
dess, Justice,  will  soon  come  bearing  in  her  hands  righteous 
strength;"120  and  in  the  Hercules  Furens  the  chorus  speak  of 
the  usurper,  Lycus,  thus:  "The  time  has  come  when  thou 
shalt  pay  the  penalty  of  death."121 

Aeschylus  seems  to  mark  off  three  distinct  periods  of  time 
when  justice  may  visit  the  guilty.  Sometimes  it  comes  directly 
after  the  sin  has  been  committed,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  high 
noon  of  life;  sometimes  it  tarries  till  twilight;  sometimes  it 


113  Cho.  61-65.  »«  76.  965  ff. 

114  H.  F.  805  f.  "»  Eum.  553  ff.  Paley. 

115  Ag.  462  ff.  120  goph.  El  475  f. 

116  Cho.  650  f.  121  ff.  pm  740. 
i"  76.  935  f. 


24  A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus 

waits  till  the  night  of  death  before  punishing  the  unjust.122 
When  Hecuba  has  discovered  that  Polymestor  is  the  murderer 
of  her  son,  Polydorus,  and  has  determined  to  exact  vengeance, 
the  chorus  declare  that  the  slayer  will  in  due  time  be  brought 
to  justice,  for  "wherever  there  is  liability  to  the  laws  of  Heaven 
and  of  Justice,  fatal  misfortune  awaits  the  guilty."123  After 
Loxias  has  delivered  his  oracles,  Justice,  having  caused  some 
delay  to  intervene,  brings  them  to  fulfillment.124  "Though  the 
transgression  be  old,  yet  does  it  find  quick  punishment."125 

/.  Retribution 

Inextricably  bound  up  with  the  general  idea  of  justice  is 
that  of  retribution,  which  finds  in  the  tragic  chorus  a  staunch 
and  fervent  disciple.  To  the  dying  Lycus  the  chorus  offer  but 
slight  consolation:  "Bear  up  in  suffering  the  pain  of  vengeance, 
paying  the  penalty  for  thy  deeds!"126  The  unjust  stand  taken 
by  Eteocles  is  maintained  in  the  conduct  of  his  successor,  Creon, 
who  refuses  to  grant  to  the  Argives  the  right  to  bury  their  dead. 
This  refusal  was  not  merely  unjust  but  even  impious;  for  Creon 
thereby  violated  a  sacred  Greek  custom  as  well  as  the  law  of  war. 
To  leave  a  corpse  unburied  was  the  most  heinous  sin  a  Greek 
could  commit.127  Great,  then,  was  the  relief  the  chorus  felt, 
when  retributive  justice  had  been  consummated.  Adrastus, 
persevering  in  the  just  cause  of  his  son-in-law,  Polynices,  had  at 
last  beheld  the  guilty  duly  punished.128  In  a  commos  of  deep 
pathos,  in  which  the  young  sons  of  the  slain  chiefs  are  assigned 
speaking  parts,  one  of  the  children  hopes  he  may  as  a  wrarrior 
some  day  avenge  his  father's  death;129  while  his  grandmother 
prays  that  the  gods  may  fulfill  his  hope.130  An  old  proverb, 
"Suffering  for  the  doer  (sinner),"  quoted  by  the  chorus,131  re- 
ceives their  implicit  belief.  "As  long  as  Zeus  reigns  supreme, 
the  doer  shall  suffer"  is  the  slight  paraphrase  of  this  proverb, 

122  Cho.  61-65.  The  fundamental  idea  of  Aeschylus  was  that  where  the 
moral  balance  had  been  upset,  it  must  be  recovered  by  paying  for  the  sin, 
and  often  this  payment  took  place  in  a  future  generation,  as  in  the  cases 
of  the  houses  of  Atreus  and  of  Labdacus. 

™  Hec.  1029  ff .  m  Eur.  Supp.  731  ff. 

124  Cho.  953  S .  129/6.  1144. 

125  Septem  742  f.  13°  76.  1145. 

126  H.  F.  754  f.  131  Cho.  313. 

127  Cf .  the  trial  and  condemnation  of  the  six  Athenian  generals  after  the 
battle  of  Arginusse  (Xen.  Hell  I.  6,  7). 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  25 

which  the  chorus  give  in  the  Agamemnon.132  In  the  Septem  the 
Theban  maidens  pray  that  Zeus  the  Requiter  may  cast  upon  the 
besiegers  his  wrathful  glance;133  and  the  Danaids  give  to  Zeus  the 
epithet  sTspoppsxirjc;,  which  implies  that  he  is  entirely  impartial 
in  his  administration  of  justice,  that  his  scales  are  absolutely 
accurate.  To  the  wicked  he  sends  bane,  but  blessing  to  the- 
righteous.  With  the  scales  thus  evenly  poised,  the  Danaids 
wonder  why  Pelasgus  hesitates  to  do  them  justice.134  Have 
they  not  as  suppliants  taken  refuge  at  their  neighbor's  hearth? 
And  yet  they  fail  to  obtain  the  justice  which  the  law  duly  ac- 
cords them.135  When  Clytemnestra  has  received  her  death- 
blow from  Orestes,  the  chorus  verily  believe  Agamemnon  to 
be  alive  beneath  the  earth,  so  strong  in  their  minds  is  the  idea 
of  vengeance:  here  they  picture  Agamemnon  as  personally 
draining  away  the  blood  of  his  slayers.136  Allusion  to  the 
coming  murder  of  Clytemnestra  by  Orestes  is  made  again  in 
this  form  by  the  chorus.137  Dishonor  of  the  altar  of  Justice 
entails  inevitable  retribution.138 

2.  Scorn  of  Prosperity  Basely  Acquired 

The  tragic  poets  are  well  aware  of  man's  persistent  albeit 
perverse  belief  in  the  all-sufficient  power  of  wealth.  Pros- 
perity, whether  rightly  or  wrongly  acquired,  is,  so  men  think, 
the  sole  means  to  the  attainment  of  happiness.  "Prosperity," 
say  the  chorus,  "is  to  mortals  a  god  and  more  than  a  god."139 
But  human  nature  has  an  edifying  lesson  to  learn  in  this  sub- 
ject from  the  tragic  chorus.  If  a  man  think  that,  because  of 
his  material  opulence,  he  can  with  impunity  annihilate  the 
great  altar  of  Justice,  he  is  sadly  mistaken.140  Granted  that 
sometimes  in  the  flush  of  his  prosperity  he  may  manage  to 
escape  the  consequences  of  his  impiety,  yet  will  his  children 
or  his  children's  children  be  doomed  to  suffer  in  his  stead.141 
Atonement  is  necessary  and  inevitable  whether  made  by  the 
sinner  himself  or  his  innocent  posterity.  But  this  belief  is 
confined  to  the  plays  of  Aeschylus  and  finds  no  acceptance  with 

132  Ag.  1563  f.  "*  Cho.  649  ff. 

133  Septem  485.  «s  Eum.  540  f . 

134  Supp.  403  ff .  isa  Cho.  57  f . 
136  Ib.  383  f.  14°A0.  381ff. 
136  Soph.  El.  1420  f .  "i  76.  369  ff. 


26  A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus 

Sophocles  or  Euripides.  Justice  has  no  respect  for  the  power 
of  riches;142  fatal  it  is  for  a  man  to  show  to  Justice  impious  dis- 
honor for  the  sake  of  material  gain.143  By  wealth  and  pros- 
perity, which  carry  with  them  power  for  evil,  are  the  minds  of 
mortals  corrupted.144  The  chariot  of  wealth  is  shattered  in 
the  race  because  the  driver  relies  on  lawlessness.145 

3.  Respect  for  Temporal  Authority 

Respect  for  temporal  power  constitutes  an  important  aspect 
of  the  piety  of  the  chorus.  A  case  worthy  of  note  is  presented 
by  the  Heraclidce146:  Alcmena  is  about  to  slay  Eurystheus,  who 
has  fallen  into  her  hands,  when  to  her  great  surprise  the  chorus 
inform  her  that  by  such  an  act  she  would  violate  the  law  of 
the  land.  It  would  therefore  seem  at  this  point  in  the  play 
that  the  chorus  put  the  observance  of  the  law  above  their  desire 
for  the  fulfillment  of  justice.  But  in  reality  this  is  not  so,  for 
the  conclusion  of  the  play  reveals  the  chorus  in  sympathy  with 
Alcmena.147  In  the  eyes  of  the  chorus,  the  tomb  of  Agamemnon 
is  an  altar  before  which  they  pay  solemn  reverence.148  Their 
mistress,  Electra,  having  bidden  them  advise  her  on  her  speech 
at  the  tomb,  finds  the  chorus  readily  obedient.149  In  prepara- 
tion for  the  murder  of  Clytemnestra  and  Aegisthus,  the  chorus 
urge  Orestes  to  give  them  his  commands,  for  they  will  faith- 
fully execute  them  all.150  Piqued  at  the  curiosity  of  the  nurse 
to  learn  of  Orestes'  fate,  the  chorus  impatiently  and  angrily 
bid  her  obey  the  orders  of  Clytemnestra  to  summon  Aegisthus.151 
For  Clytemnestra's  power  the  chorus  show  profound  respect, 
since  they  deem  it  only  right  to  honor  the  king's  consort,  when 
the  king's  throne  stands  vacant.152  The  slavery,  to  which  the 
chorus  of  the  Choephori  have  been  reduced,  calls  forth  from 
them  no  bitter  complaint,  inasmuch  as  they  believe  their  hap- 
less plight  to  have  been  caused  by  the  gods.  Obey  their  mas- 
ters they  must,  whether  justly  so  or  not.  Yet  secretly  they 
grieve  over  the  sins  of  their  rulers.153  The  reference  of  the 


142  Ag.  780.  148  Cho.  106. 

™Eum.  540  f.  14976.  107. 

144  #.  F.  774  ff.  i50  76.  552  f. 

146  76.  779  f .  161 76.  779. 

146  Heracl.  961  ff.  162  Ag.  258  ff. 

147  76.  1053.  153  Cho.  75  ff. 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  27 

Danaids  to  King  Pelasgus  as  the  embodiment  of  the  city  and 
commonwealth154  reminds  one  forcibly  of  the  dictum  of  Louis 
XIV:  "L'etat,  c'est  moi."  Such  is  the  devotion  of  the  Bac- 
chanals to  their  god,  that,  despite  their  innate  tendency  to  obey 
implicitly  their  superiors,  they  essay  to  apprise  King  Pentheus 
in  a  spirit  of  proud  defiance  of  their  unwavering  belief  in  the- 
supremacy  of  Dionysus.155 

But  if  we  would  seek  the  most  salient  manifestation  of  this 
characteristic  of  the  chorus,  we  must  turn  to  the  Persce,  that 
curious  and  unique  play,  curious  by  reason  of  its  strange  con- 
fusion of  Greek  and  Oriental  manners,  and  unique  in  that  it 
depicts  an  historical  subject.  To  the  Persians  the  royal  family 
is  divine.  But  this  is  not  at  all  astonishing,  when  we  reflect 
that  among  all  Oriental  peoples  blind  deference  to  authority 
and  strict  observance  of  caste  relations  are  only  natural.  The 
splendor  of  Queen  Atossa  is  compared  by  the  chorus  to  the 
eyes  of  the  gods,  and,  as  she  draws  near,  they  duly  prostrate 
themselves.156  In  greeting  the  queen  the  chorus  are  careful 
to  address  her  as  "consort  of  a  god  and  mother  of  a  god;"157  and 
they  assure  her  of  their  unalloyed  devotion  to  her  interests.158 

4.  Power  of  the  Gods 

The  power  and  majesty  of  the  gods  constitute  a  favorite 
theme  for  the  chorus'  praise.  "  Never  in  my  sight  will  the  gods 
appear  inferior  to  mortals."159  "I  say  that  no  man  has  ever 
enjoyed  prosperity  or  suffered  tribulation  save  by  the  will  of 
the  gods."160  lolaus,  in  despair  over  Macaria's  noble  self- 
sacrifice,  is  bidden  by  the  chorus  to  take  courage  and  endure 
the  buffetings  of  the  gods.161  Her  meritorious  example  of 
martyrdom  should  inspire  the  old  man  with  righteous  pride 
rather  than  with  bitter  anguish.  Commiserating  Hecuba  in 
her  hapless  predicament,  the  chorus  attest  the  heavy  hand  of 
God;162  while  the  dread  misfortune  that  has  visited  the  city 
and  house  of  Priam  is  due  wholly  to  the  irresistible  decree  of 


154  Aesch.  Supp.  370.  does  not  occur  in  the  MSS.,  but  the 

155  Bacch.  775  ff.  context  shows  it  to  be  an  almost  cer- 
166  Pers.  150  ff.  tain  emendation. 

157  76.  157.  16°  Ib.  608  f. 

168  76.  175.  161 76.  619. 

169  Heracl  768  f.    The  word  Behoves    162  Hec.  721  f. 


28  A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus 

the  gods.163  "To  the  gods  all  things  are  easy."164  The  chorus 
of  Theban  maidens  pray  them  to  stem  the  tide  of  mad  conflict 
that  threatens  to  break  forth  between  Polynices  and  Eteocles, 
and  to  bring  the  brothers  to  a  reconciliation.165  To  win  the 
victory  fully  satisfies  the  chorus,  but  if  the  gods  can  give  them 
still  more  joy,  they  ask  to  be  so  blessed.166  When,  however, 
the  messenger  has  brought  the  news  of  the  death  of  Eteocles 
and  his  brother,  the  chorus  at  once  realize  that  the  gods  have 
fulfilled  Oedipus'  curses.167  The  suppliant  mothers  of  the 
chiefs  slain  before  Thebes,  on  learning  of  the  downfall  of  the 
enemy,  voice  their  firm  belief  in  the  gods,  now  that  they  have 
beheld  the  day  they  never  expected  to  see.168  As  Lycus  utters 
his  death  cry,  the  chorus,  with  bold  pride,  ask  who  the  wretched 
mortal  was,  who  dared  declare  that  the  gods  have  no  power.169 
"What  fairer  gift  can  the  gods  bestow  on  men  than  victory 
over  their  enemies?"  query  the  Bacchanals.170  "Slowly  but 
surely  moves  the  might  of  Heaven  to  school  those  mortals  who 
exalt  their  unbelief  and  who,  in  the  madness  of  their  thoughts, 
honor  not  the  gods."171  "To  their  will  man  is  ever  subject; 
great  is  their  power."172  Peleus'  woe  has  come  by  decree  of 
Heaven.173  The  chorus  bring  into  sharp  contrast  the  uncer- 
tainty of  human  affairs  and  the  never-failing  word  of  the  gods.174 
Electra's  recognition  of  her  brother  prompts  the  chorus  to 
declare  that  the  gods  are  bringing  them  victory.176  The  failure 
of  Castor  and  Pollux  to  avert  their  sister's  calamity  is  to  the 
chorus  a  matter  of  great  surprise.  Why  couldn't  they,  being 
gods,  save  her?  But  Castor  replies  that  her  deliverance  is 
impossible  by  dint  of  Necessity's  decree  and  Phoebus'  oracle.176 
The  pious  and  the  wicked  alike  receive  from  the  gods  their 
respective  rewards.177  Success  is  assured  when  the  gods  grant 
to  mortals  their  favor;178  but  over-confidence,  the  chorus  think, 
is  not  to  be  sought,  for  the  gods  often  veer  in  their  course.179 

163  Hec.  583  f.  m  Or.  1545  ff. 

164  Phoen.  689.  173  Andr.  1203. 

166  7&.  586  f.  174#eZ.  1149  f. 

168  76.  1200  f.  176  Eur.  El.  589  ff. 

167  Ib.  1425  f.  176  Ib.  1298  ff. 

168  Eur.  Supp.  731  ff.  177  H.  F.  772  f. 

169  H.  F.  757  ff.  178  Rh.  317  f. 

170  Bacch.  877  ff.  179  Ib.  332. 
171 76.  882  ff . 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  29 

Thus  do  the  chorus  forewarn  the  sanguine  Hector,  yet  they 
hope  that  the  gods  will  fight  on  their  side  and  so  grant  them 
the  victory.180  With  this  wish  the  Rhesus  concludes.  In  their 
grief  over  the  impending  fate  of  Alcestis  and  Admetus,  the 
chorus  seek  consolation  in  prayer.  "Let  us  pray  to  the  gods; 
supreme  is  their  power."181 

The  fickleness  of  fortune  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  will  of 
the  gods.  It  is  they  who  consummate  the  unexpected  and 
withhold  that  which  is  confidently  expected.182  "The  Trojans 
have  felt  the  blow  of  Zeus;  they  have  fared  as  he  willed."188  'Tis 
the  gods  who  granted  Agamemnon  to  capture  the  city  of  Priam, 
and  who  honored  him  with  a  triumphant  return  to  his  native 
land.184  From  the  gods,  too,  the  interpreters  of  dreams  derive 
their  mantic  power.185  As  Electra  despairingly  utters  her  dirge 
at  the  tomb  of  her  father,  she  is  minded  by  the  chorus  that  the 
gods  may  haply  turn  her  threnody  into  a  song  of  triumph.186 
Ever  in  sympathy  with  those  who  innocently  suffer,  the  chorus 
seek  to  assuage  their  misfortune  by  words  of  hope  and  encour- 
agement. The  gods  have  guided  Orestes  through  all  his  trials 
and  tribulations,  so  that  he  has  persisted  resolutely  in  his  pur- 
suit of  the  goal  of  justice.187  "The  gods  hold  supreme  sway, 
because  they  do  not  aid  the  wicked  in  wickedness."188  "What 
mortal  man  can  baffle  the  gods?"  cry  the  chorus,  confidently 
believing  that  the  gods  have  granted  the  Persians  to  be  ever 
victorious.189  Orestes'  deed  of  vengeance  calls  forth  the  bless- 
ing of  the  chorus,  who,  on  his  departure,  pray  that  the  gods 
may  watch  over  him  with  kindly  eyes  and  protect  him  with 
happy  fortune.190  In  their  lamentation  over  the  disastrous 
expedition  of  Xerxes,  the  chorus  realize  that  their  woes  have 
been  sent  by  the  gods.191  Their  sanguine  hopes  also  have  been 
cruelly  shattered  by  the  gods.192  To  Eteocles'  disparaging 
remarks  about  the  gods,  the  chorus  make  a  fitting  rejoinder  in 
the  tribute  which  they  pay  to  the  invincible  strength  of  the 


180  Rh.  995  f .  «7  76.  939  ff. 

181  Ale.  217.  188  76.  958  f. 

182  76.  1159  ff.  189Pers.  93. 
™Ag.  367  ff.  ™Cho.  1063  f. 

184  76.  1335  ff.  191  Pers.  573,  581. 

185  Cho.  37  f. 

186  76.  340  ff . 


30  A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus 

immortals.193  "It  is  they  alone  who  have  made  impregnable 
the  city  in  which  we  dwell."194  The  Theban  maidens  implore 
their  local  gods  for  safety  and  deliverance.195  This  individual- 
ization  of  belief  is,  as  E.  Petersen  has  well  pointed  out,196  a 
clearly  marked  phenomenon  in  the  invocations  and  declara- 
tions of  the  chorus.  "Unhappy  is  he  whose  house  the  gods  have 
shaken."197  The  curse  that  abides  in  a  family  from  generation 
to  generation  works  its  baneful  effect  through  the  gods.198  Their 
forms  of  chastisement,  characterized  by  Sophocles  as  "  fleet 
of  foot,"199  are  sure  to  visit  the  wicked.200  Though  commiser- 
ating Antigone  and  her  father,  yet,  through  fear  of  the  power 
of  the  gods,  the  chorus  feel  unable  to  tell  them  more  than  they 
;  have  already  told.201  "What  the  gods  send  to  mortals  must 
Lbe  consummated,"  the  chorus  consolingly  remind  Admetus, 
when  in  reality  good  fortune,  in  the  form  of  his  wife  rescued 
from  Death,  smiles  upon  him.202  He  who  unhesitatingly  shows 
obedience  to  the  gods  shall  have  a  life  free  from  sorrow.203  To 
mitigate  the  anxiety  of  Deianeira  over  the  absence  of  Heracles, 
the  chorus  evince  their  certainty  of  his  safety.  Though  he 
may  fall  into  extreme  danger,  yet  some  god  is  careful  to  keep 
Heracles  free  from  the  clutches  of  Death.204 

The  power  of  love,  personified  either  as  Cypris  or  her  son, 
Eros,  is  amply  acknowledged  in  the  sentiments  of  the  chorus. 
Not  only  mortal  man  is  subject  to  Love's  sway;  even  the  im- 
mortal gods  yield  to  the  charms  of  Aphrodite.205  Sometimes, 
however,  out  of  deference  to  the  gods'  might,  the  chorus  refrain 
from  telling  of  Aphrodite's  conquest  of  her  fellow-immortals.206 
"True  divination  comes  to  him  who  has  the  gods  for  friends."207 
While  visiting  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  the  handmaids 
of  Creusa  are  given  instructions  by  Ion  as  to  where  and  where 
not  they  may  go;  whereupon  they  assure  Ion  of  implicit  obedi- 
ence. "What  the  gods  have  ordained  we  do  not  transgress."208 


193  Septem  226.  201  0.  C.  254  ff . 

194  76.  233.  202  Ale.  1071. 

195  76.  239,  299  f .,  807  f .  203  Bacch.  1002  ff. 

196  Die  Attische  Tragoedie,  1915,  pp.     204  Tr.  119  f. 

150  f .  205  Hipp.  1268  ff . ;  Ant.  785  ff. 

(^"Ant.  583  f.  2067V.  498  ff. 

198  76.  593  f .  207  Hel  759  f . 

199  76.  1104.  20*7on231, 

1103f. 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  31 

Stunned  by  the  heartrending  news  of  their  mistress'  sorry 
plight,  the  chorus  give  way  to  despair,  from  which  they  can  be 
delivered  only  by  the  gods'  help.209  Again  and  again  the  chorus 
cry  to  the  gods  who  are  the  best  and  surest  trust  for  those  in 
fear.210  "0  that  some  god  would  give  me  wings,  that  I  might 
fly  in  triumph  to  Thebes!"  plead  the  mothers  of  the  slain 
chiefs.211 

5.  Majesty  of  Individual  Gods 

But  it  is  not  only  the  powers  and  prerogatives  of  the  gods 
as  a  collective  unit,  which  receive  sincere  and  hearty  recognition 
from  the  chorus;  those  of  individual  deities  are  equally  glorified, 
for  frequently  under  the  stress  of  circumstances  the  chorus 
feel  the  need  of  exalting  the  attributes  of  some  particular  god. 
Thus  the  Danaids,  by  their  pious  utterances,  render  a  glowing 
panegyric  of  Zeus;  while  the  Bacchce  constitutes  perhaps  the 
noblest  eulogy  of  Dionysus  in  all  Greek  literature.  Naturally 
enough,  in  the  ardor  of  their  zeal  and  devotion,  the  Bacchanals 
declare  Dionysus  to  be  inferior  to  no  other  god.212  When 
Cassandra  informs  the  chorus  of  Mycenaean  elders  of  Apollo's 
love  for  her,  they  are  fairly  astounded  that  a  great  god  like 
him  should  have  been  smitten  with  a  passion  for  a  mere  mor- 
tal.213 Such  a  thing,  they  imply,  could  not  be. 

In  general,  however,  the  chorus  appear  to  uphold  the  ortho- 
dox idea  of  the  supremacy  of  Zeus.  He  is  the  cause  and  executor 
of  all  things;  nothing  is  fulfilled  without  Zeus.214  The  daughters 
of  Oceanus  speak  of  Zeus  as  the  "disposer  of  all  things."215  "Never 
shall  the  counsels  of  mortals  surpass  the  harmony  of  Zeus."216 
They  also  sharply  contrast  the  weakness  of  mortals  with  the 
power  of  the  gods.217  When  they  think  of  lo's  hapless  plight, 
they  are  minded  to  hope  that  they  will  never  suffer  a  like  fate. 
Their  desire  is  to  avoid  marriage  with  gods  of  greater  power 
and  its  consequent  misfortunes,  for  they,  like  lo,  would  be 
unable  to  escape  the  design  of  Zeus.218  The  Theban  maidens 


209  Ion.  1243  f .  214  Ib.  1485  ff. 

210  Eur.  Supp.  626  f.  216  P.  V.  528;  cf.  Tr.  126. 

211  Ib.  620  f.  216/6.  551. 

212  Bacch.  777.  217  76.  545,  549  f. 

213  Ag.  1204,  «•  76.  898  ff. 


32  •  A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus 

implore  almighty  Zeus  to  confound  their  foes;219  and  when  the 
victory  has  been  assured  them,  they  bestow  high  praise  upon 
their  ruler,  Eteocles,  who,  "next  to  mighty  Zeus  and  the  other 
gods,  has  been  most  instrumental  in  saving  the  city  from  de- 
struction."220 Zeus'  power  is  completely  immune  to  any  re- 
strictive influence  that  mortal  man  might  through  transgression 
dare  to  impose  on  it.221  Zeus  rules  all  things  and  his  rule  is 
deathless.222  In  her  sad  yearning  for  the  return  of  Orestes, 
Electra  receives  hearty  compassion  from  the  chorus:  " Courage, 
child,  courage !  Still  great  in  heaven  is  Zeus,  who  oversees  and 
governs  all  things;  to  him  commit  thy  bitter  wrath."223  "Some 
day  the  famed  land  of  Mycenae  will  receive  Orestes  coming 
hither  under  the  kindly  guidance  of  Zeus."224  The  ruler,  to 
whom  Zeus  entrusts  his  divine  scepter,  excels  all  others  in  skill 
and  wisdom.225  Whenever  the  stroke  of  Zeus  comes  on  Ajax, 
the  chorus  become  gravely  apprehensive.226  The  wrath  of 
Zeus,  the  god  of  suppliants,  mortals  should  be  careful  not  to 
incur,  as  the  Danaids  expressly  remind  us,227  for  it  is  "  heavy"228 
and  "abiding."229  So  the  Theban  maidens  pray  that  Zeus 
may  cast  a  wrathful  glance  on  their  enemies.230 

6.  Fear  of  the  Gods   v 

A  sense  of  hesitation  or  fear  is  a  natural  concomitant  of  the 
chorus'  piety.  The  Theban  elders  tremble  at  the  mention  of 
the  Furies.231  The  mariners  of  Salamis  liken  their  fear  for 
Ajax  to  that  of  the  timid  dove;232  while  they  feel  keen  anxiety 
over  his  grief,  due,  they  believe,  to  the  sinister  stroke  of  some 
god.233  Through  dread  of  the  judgment  of  the  gods,  the  chorus 
dare  not  violate  religious  custom  for  the  sake  of  Oedipus.234 
The  elders  of  Colonus  show  great  trepidation  at  Zeus'  thunder 
and  lightning:  "I  am  afraid;  for  never  does  the  flash  rush 


219  Septem  255;  cf.  Aesch.  Supp.  816.     227  Aesch.  Supp.  427. 

220  76.  1074  ff.  228  Ib.  346,  651. 

221  Ant.  605.  »»  76.  385. 

222  0.  T.  904  f.  23°  Septem  485. 

223  Soph.  El.  174  ff.;  cf.  0.  C.  1085  ff.    231 0.  C.  126. 

224  76.  160  ff.  M2  Aj.  139  f . 
226  Ph.  137  ff.  233  76.  278  f . 
226  Aj.  137  ff.  2340.  C.  256  f. 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  33 

O 
forth  in  vain  or  without  serious  consequence.     0  great  sky! 

O  Zeus!"235  The  daughters  of  Oceanus  attribute  the  misery 
of  Prometheus  to  his  utter  disregard  of  Zeus  and  his  excessive 
zeal  for  the  welfare  of  man.236  When  contemplating  the  dire 
affliction  which  jealous  Hera  has  laid  on  poor,  mortal  lo,  they 
are  seized  with  fear;237  and  with  much  misgiving,  they  ask  the 
rash  Prometheus  if  Zeus  might  possibly  some  day  be  dethroned, 
showing  utter  amazement  at  the  revolutionary  sentiments  of 
the  friend  of  man.238  "But  why  should  I  be  afraid  of  Zeus?" 
replies  the  recalcitrant  immortal;  "I  am  prepared  for  anything." 
"Ah!  but  wise  are  they,"  rejoin  the  chorus,  "who  worship 
Adrastea."  This  remark,  however,  only  provokes  a  contempt- 
uous retort  from  Prometheus:  "Worship,  supplicate,  cower 
still  before  the  one  now  in  power;  but  as  for  me,  I  care  even 
less  than  nothing  for  Zeus.  Let  him  do  as  he  pleases  and  hold 
power  a  little  while;  for  he  won't  rule  the  gods  for  long."239 
As  the  Theban  maidens  catch  the  sound  of  Polynices'  onslaught, 
they  turn  with  dread  in  their  hearts  to  the  supplication  of  the 
gods.240  Despite  their  fear  of  uttering  words  of  freedom  in 
the  presence  of  King  Pentheus,  and  in  defiance  of  secular  law 
of  which  he  is  the  outward  and  visible  embodiment  and  to 
which  they  usually  show  implicit  obedience,  the  Bacchanals 
cherish  a  devotion  to  their  divinity,  Dionysus,  which  proves 
too  strong  for  suppression.241  The  old  men  of  Marathon  are 
overjoyed  to  behold  the  day  that  delivers  them  from  their 
dread  fear  of  the  enemy;242  while  the  Phoenician  maidens,  though 
really  in  sympathy  with  the  cause  of  Polynices,  yet  proclaim 
their  dread  of  the  Argive  might  and  the  hand  of  Heaven.243 
Twice  the  Theban  maidens  express  their  fear  of  the  fulfillment 
by  the  Erinys  of  the  awful  curse  resting  on  Oedipus'  family.244 
"Sometimes  awe  should  remain  enthroned,  keeping  a  close  watch 
over  the  hearts  of  men,"  declare  the  Eumenides.245 


235  0.  C.  1469  ff .  24°  Septem  214. 

236  P.  V.  542  ff.  2"  Bacch.  775  ff. 

237  76.  898  ff.  242  Heracl  867  f. 

238  76.  930  ff.  "a  Phoen.  256  ff. 

239  76.  933  ff.     Adrastea  is  another  244  Septem  720  ff.,  790  f. 
name  for  Nemesis  (Strabo  xiii.  1,  13)  245  Bum.  517  ff. 

and  the  daughter  of  Zeus  (Rh.  342). 


34  A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus 


7.  Hatred  of  u 

Tragedy  offers  abundant  evidence  of  the  chorus'  hatred  of 
insolence  (S^pis).  Aeschylus,  with  his  fondness  for  personi- 
fication, makes  Insolence  the  offspring  of  Impiety.246  It  is 
unholy  insolence  that  Pentheus  hurls  at  Bromius  to  the  horri- 
fication  of  the  Bacchanals.247  To  Lycus'  outrageous  conduct 
toward  his  betters  is  due  his  wretched  ruin.248  When  the  gods 
allow  the  wicked  to  enjoy  prosperity,  the  sin  of  wanton  insolence 
inevitably  follows;  and  under  its  pernicious  spell  they  are 
deluded  into  thinking  and  believing  that  fair  fortune  will  ever 
smile  kindly  on  them.249  It  was  impious  arrogance  on  the  part 
of  Creon  and  his  followers  that  sealed  the  sad  fate  of  Thebes.250 
The  suppliant  mothers  feel  the  terrible  blot  of  outrage  that  has 
rested  on  their  city,  while  their  sons  have  remained  unburied.251 
In  allusion  to  the  fatal  course  of  Eurystheus,  the  chorus  ex- 
claim: "Far  from  me  be  pride  and  a  spirit  insatiate."252  It 
is  just  this  8pptg,  the  Danaids  declare,  that  has  excited  the 
sons  of  Aegyptus  to  their  mad  pursuit;  and  they  entreat  the 
king  to  recognize  it,  thus  sparing  himself  the  misfortune  of 
incurring  the  anger  of  Zeus.253  It  is  this  u@pt<;,  too,  which 
maliciously  prompts  a  man  to  profane  the  great  altar  of  Jus- 
tice.254 When  come  to  old  age,  Insolence  begets  its  progeny 
in  the  wicked  man,  and  thus  perpetuates  its  baleful  family.255 
In  their  greeting  of  Rhesus,  the  chorus  of  Trojan  sentinels  pray 
Nemesis  to  keep  evil  presumption  from  their  lips.256  The 
Theban  elders  also  pray  that  the  man  who  appears  haughty 
in  word  or  deed  may  suffer  an  evil  fate  for  his  pride.257  "Inso- 
lence," they  aver,  "begets  the  tyrant;  dire  is  its  doom."258 
"The  punishment  which  the  haughty  suffer  for  their  over- 
weening words  teaches  wisdom  in  old  age":  with  this  sentiment 
the  Antigone  concludes.259 

8.  Humility 

But  in  proportion  as  they  show  repugnance  to  pride  and 
insolence,  the  chorus  seek  to  cultivate  humility  and  sincerity. 

246  Eum.  534.  253  Supp.  426  f  . 

2«  Bacch.  374  f  .  ™  Ag.  383  f. 

™*H.  F.  741.  25576.  764  f. 

249  Eur.  Supp.  463  f  .  256  Rh.  342  f.   „ 

250  76.  511  f.  2670.  T.  883  ff. 
2«  76.  631  ff.  258  76.  873  ff. 
252  HeracCWQi.  259  Ant.  1350  ff. 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  35 

Humbly  do  the  Argive  women  ask  the  Dioscuri  if  it  is  lawful 
for  mere  mortals  to  address  them.260  The  prosperous  man,  who 
fails  to  nurture  his  heart  with  humility,  is  sure  to  show  sooner 
or  later  disrespect  of  right.261  With  humility  are  joined  love 
of  peace  and  abhorrence  of  strife.  In  fact  Ares,  as  god  of  war, 
finds  no  favor  with  the  chorus.  Hearing  the  rattle  of  the  foe's 
spears,  the  Theban  maidens  feel  that  Ares  will  betray  his  coun- 
try.262 He  can  in  no  wise  withstand  the  power  of  Fate,263  and 
his  banishment  from  the  land,  nay,  his  very  death  the  chorus 
ardently  desire.264 

The  view  held  by  later  Epicurean  philosophers,  that  the  gods 
dwell  far  away  in  heaven  and  have  no  concern  in  the  affairs 
of  mortals,  is  in  the  eyes  of  the  Mycenaean  elders  glaringly 
impious.265  Here  the  chorus  allude  to  the  god-sent  curse  on 
the  family  of  Priam  because  of  Paris'  sin.  The  gods,  to  be 
sure,  dwell  far  away  in  heaven,  but  at  the  same  time  they  watch 
over  the  lives  of  men.266  "Not  unaware  are  the  gods  of  those 
who  commit  much  bloodshed."267  "In  no  place,"  says  Peter- 
sen,268  "are  the  primitive  pious  beliefs  of  the  people  better  illus- 
trated than  in  the  view  expressed  everywhere  in  Greek  tragedy, 
that  man  must  be  favorable  to  the  higher  powers  that  watch 
over  his  life,  and  must  never  neglect  them." 

9.  Abhorrence  of  Religious  Pollution 

Quite  familiar  to  the  tragic  chorus  is  the  idea  of  religious 
defilement  and  its  healing  purgation.  A  vivid  illustration  of 
this  idea  is  to  be  found  in  the  Agamemnon,  where  the  chorus 
openly  accuse  Aegisthus  of  polluting  justice.269  In  the  Septem 
Ares,  as  god  of  war,  defiles  piety.270  "Beware  of  pollution!" 
the  chorus  warn  the  Argive  king;271  and  in  the  Suppliants  the 
chorus  pray  the  city  of  Pallas  not  to  defile  the  laws  of  mortals.272 
The  elders  of  Mycenae  call  Clytemnestra  "the  pollution  of 
her  country  and  of  her  native  gods";273  while  the  old  men  of 


260  Eur.  El.  1292  f.  267  Ag.  461  f. 

261  Eum.  521  f .  268  Op.  cit.  p.  154. 

262  Septem  105.  269  Ag.  1669. 

263  An*.  951  f.  27°  Septem  344. 

264  0.  T.  190  ff.  271  Aesch.  Supp.  375. 
365  Ag.  369  ff.  272  Eur.  Supp.  378. 
266  Bacch.  392  ff.  273  Ag.  1645. 


36  A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus 

Colonus,  on  beholding  the  blind  Oedipus  in  the  grove  of  the 
Furies,  invoke  Zeus  the  Guardian,  since  they  at  once  assume 
that  Oedipus  is,  as  it  were,  a  plague  polluting  their  hallowed 
precinct.274  In  the  Choephori  the  chorus  speak  of  Aegisthus 
and  Clytemnestra  as  "two  defilers."275  " Indelible  is  the  pollu- 
tion caused  by  the  death  of  brothers  slain  each  by  the  other," 
cry  the  Theban  maidens.276  And  when  Orestes  embraces 
Iphigenia,  the  chorus  are  appalled  at  the  sight,  for  they  believe 
that  in  so  doing  Orestes  has  defiled  the  sacred  person  of  Artemis' 


10.  Moral  Restraint  (06  Ospuq) 

The  idea  of  moral  restraint  inherent  in  the  expression  ou 
tii\u<;  occurs  frequently  in  the  choral  odes,  and  is  aptly  sug- 
gestive of  the  prohibitory  commandments  of  the  decalogue. 
^?he  chorus  know  of  only  one  haven  of  safety — the  altar — for 
Creusa  in  her  flight  from  her  death-threatening  pursuers;  there 
as  suppliant  she  may  thwart  her  would-be  murderers,  for  the 
law  says,  "Thou  shalt  not  slay  the  suppliant."278  The  inability 
of  mortal  man  to  escape  his  destiny  is  due  to  Themis,  the  per- 
sonification of  divine  law;  while  the  consequences  of  violating 
the  seventh  Hebraic  commandment  are  graphically  foretold 
by  the  chorus  in  the  case  of  Clytemnestra  and  Aegisthus.279 
"Thou  shalt  not  commit  adultery"  was  as  scrupulously  ob- 
served by  the  orthodox  Greek  as  by  the  orthodox  Hebrew. 
The  elders  of  Colonus  are  aghast  to  find  Oedipus  on  forbidden 
ground  in  the  sacred  grove  of  the  Furies.  With  their  char- 
acteristically sympathetic  attitude,  they  are  ready  to  aid  the 
blind  old  man  as  best  they  may,  but  before  they  dare  hold  con- 
verse with  him,  he  must  leave  the  holy  precinct.  "Speak  to 
us,"  enjoin  the  chorus,  "where  'tis  lawful  for  all;  but,  till  then, 
hold  thy  tongue."280  The  Theban  maidens  feel  sure  that  Ete- 
ocles'  temerity  will  drive  him  on  to  unlawful  murder.281  "Man 
may  not  lawfully  transgress  what  Zeus  makes  holy,"  declare 
the  Choephori  in  allusion  to  the  guilty  deeds  of  Clytemnestra 
and  her  paramour.282 

274  0.  C.  142.  279  Soph.  El.  492  f. 

276  Cho.  944.  28°  0.  C.  166  ff. 
278  Septem  734  ff.  281  Septem  692  ff. 

277  I.  T.  798  f.  282  Cho.  644  f. 

278  Ion  1255  f. 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  37 

11.  Strict  Observance  of  Ritual  Forms 

A  notable  aspect  of  the  chorus'  orthodoxy  consists  in  their 
punctilious  observance  of  all  conventional  ritual.  In  their 
supplication  to  the  gods  for  happy  deliverance,  the  Theban 
maidens  beseech  them  to  be  mindful  of  the  rites  and  sacrifices, 
which  the  people  have  unfailingly  performed.283  If  Eteocles 
would  only  yield  to  the  entreaties  of  the  chorus  and  pay  due 
sacrifice  to  the  gods,  desisting  from  his  mad  determination 
to  meet  his  brother  in  deadly  conflict,  the  dread  curse  that 
haunts  his  family  would  vanish.284  But  in  his  reply,  Eteocles 
impiously  declares  that  the  gods  have  slighted  him.  After 
the  murder  of  Aegisthus  and  Clytemnestra,  the  chorus  bid 
Orestes  cleanse  his  hands  and  supplicate  Loxias,  that  he  may 
thereby  set  his  mind  at  ease.285  A  striking  example  of  the 
knowledge  of  orthodox  ritual  possessed  by  the  chorus  is  fur- 
nished by  a  passage  in  the  Oedipus  Coloneus,2**  where  Oedipus 
asks  the  elders  how  to  make  atonement  to  the  Eumenides  for 
having  trespassed  on  their  holy  ground.  Scrupulously  careful 
they  are  not  to  omit  the  slightest  minutiae  of  this  ceremony; 
and  if  Oedipus  carries  out  these  rites,  they  will  boldly  stand 
by  him;  but  if  he  fails,  they  fear  a  dreadful  fate  will  await  him. 
For  Atossa's  disquieting  dream  the  chorus  have  a  ready  and 
effective  remedy:287  first  she  must  supplicate  the  gods,  in  order 
that  they  may  send  her  their  blessing;  then  pour  a  libation  to 
Earth  and  the  Dead;  and  finally  ask  her  deceased  husband  to 
send  to  her  and  Xerxes  good  things  from  the  lower  world.  This 
last  ceremony  is  performed  also  by  Electra  in  her  prayer  to 
Agamemnon.288  With  the  capture  of  Orestes  and  Pylades,  the 
chorus  invoke  Artemis  to  accept  the  sacrifice  of  the  strangers, 
which,  though  accounted  unholy  in  Greece,  is  strongly  sanc- 
tioned and  enjoined  by  the  Tauric  law;289  and  in  their  prayer 
to  Athena  to  stop  the  advance  of  the  impious  Eurystheus  and 
his  army,  the  old  men  of  Marathon  proudly  remind  the  goddess 
of  the  sacrificial  rites,  which  they  perform  regularly  every 
month  in  her  honor.290 


283  Septem  178.  287  Pers.  216-225. 

284  76.  699  ff .  288  Cho.  147. 
286  Cho.  1059  f .  289  7.  T.  463  ff. 
288  0.  C.  466-492.  29°  Heracl  777  ff. 


38  A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus 

12.  Faith  in  the  Gods 

The  plays  of  Euripides  stress  the  chorus'  deep  faith  in  the 
gods.  In  the  Hippolytus  the  chorus  declare  that  through  the 
power  of  faith  griefs  are  banished  and  life  becomes  simple  and 
pleasant,  but  doubt  brings  only  perplexity  and  vicissitude; 
accordingly  they  pray  the  gods  to  grant  them  a  wholesome 
faith  among  life's  blessings.291  The  Theban  elders,  though 
they  had  always  disbelieved  the  story  of  Zeus'  marriage  with 
mortal  Alcmena,  are  finally  through  the  revelation  of  Heracles' 
saving  might  won  over  to  faith.292  Despairingly  the  Corin- 
thian ladies  bewail  the  lack  of  faith  in  the  gods  among  mortals.293 
Such  faith,  declare  the  suppliant  mothers,  is  the  first  aid  of 
the  sore  afraid.294 

13.  Prayer 

Prayer,  too,  the  chorus  uphold  and  enjoin.  To  them  its 
efficacy  is  ever  unfailing.  By  prayer  fate  may  be  induced  to 
come  quicker  or  easier.295  "Your  office  is  prayer,"  Cassandra 
tells  the  chorus  of  Mycenaean  elders.296  When  Clytemnestra 
has  finished  the  first  recital  of  her  story  of  the  fall  of  Troy,  the 
chorus  at  once  declare  their  intention  to  thank  the  gods  through 
prayer  for  the  Greek  victory;  but  so  elated  do  they  feel,  that 
before  their  prayer  they  eagerly  desire  Clytemnestra  to  tell 
them  the  story  over  again.297  This  done,  they  are  ready  to 
address  themselves  to  the  gods.298  The  chorus  of  Trojan  women 
admonish  Hecuba  to  supplicate  the  gods  for  the  deliverance 
of  her  captive  daughter,  for  only  through  prayer  may  she  be 
happily  restored.299 

14-  Appeals  to  Tradition 

Appeals  to  tradition  are  not  at  all  uncommon  with  the  chorus. 
Glad  they  are  to  be  rid  of  the  upstart,  Lycus,  the  mere  creature 
of  a  day.  The  ancient  line  comes  again  into  its  own  and  sacred 
tradition  is  thus  preserved.300  Lycus  they  characterize  as  an 
" utterly  base  parvenu."301  Conservatism,  ever  linked  with  piety, 


291  Hipp.  1102  f.,  1114.  *»  76.  317  ff. 

292  H.  F.  802  ff.  »*  Ib.  353. 

293  Med.  413  f.  a»  Hec.  146  ff. 

294  Eur.  Supp.  627.  30°  H.  F.  768  ff. 
296  Cho.  465.  301  76.  257. 

296  Ag.  1250. 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  39 

is  dear  indeed  to  the  hearts  of  the  chorus.  The  Furies,  who 
act  as  plaintiff  in  the  suit  against  Orestes,  accuse  his  protector, 
Apollo,  of  destroying  the  good  old  order  of  things  and  beguiling 
with  wine  the  ancient  goddesses.302  The  gods  now  in  power 
are  arrant  upstarts,  who  ride  down  the  laws  of  old  and  shame- 
lessly deprive  the  Eumenides  of  their  rightful  prerogatives.303 
Endowed  with  hoary  wisdom,  as  they  proudly  boast,  the  Erinyes 
deem  their  defeat  at  the  hands  of  Apollo  and  Athena  the  most 
humiliating  degradation.304  Through  irresistible  wiles  have 
the  gods  wrested  from  them  their  immemorial  rights.305  The 
quotation  of  ancient  proverbs  constitutes  cogent  evidence  of 
the  chorus'  hearty  and  reverent  observance  of  things  tradi- 
tional. The  moral  doctrine  that  suffering  is  the  inevitable 
reward  of  sin  is  enthusiastically  believed  and  preached  by 
Aeschylus.306  The  upright  and  virtuous  man,  on  the  other 
hand,  remains  ever  wholly  immune  to  misery.307  This  view, 
however,  as  James  Adam308  has  convincingly  shown,  does  not 
find  acceptance  with  Sophocles.  Suffering,  according  to  Soph- 
ocles, is  not  incompatible  with  moral  innocence.  The  Antigone 
brings  this  out  forcefully.  In  the  same  play  the  chorus  give 
expression  to  the  proverb  uttered  by  some  wise  man  of  olden 
time,  that  "evil  seems  good,  soon  or  late,  to  him  whose  mind 
the  god  draws  to  mischief;  and  but  for  the  briefest  space  doth 
he  fare  free  of  woe."309  A  fine  example  of  the  chorus'  love  of 
tradition  is  offered  also  by  a  beautiful  ode  31°  descriptive  of  the 
good  old  days  of  Erechtheus,  when  all  was  peace  and  happiness. 
So,  too,  in  the  Choephori  the  captive  handmaids  contrast  the 
happy  past  when  "reverential  awe,  which  baffles  war,  sub 
jugation  and  battle,"  was  shown  to  righteous  kings  with  the 
unhappy  present  when  humble  respect  gives  way  to  cringing 
fear.311 

15.  Belie}  in  Dreams,  Oracles,  etc. 

In  keeping  with  their  strict  adherence  to  form  in  the  cele- 
bration of  various  religious  rites,  the  chorus  show  themselves 


302  Eum.  727  f.  307  Ag.  761  f. 

303  Ib.  778  f .  308  Religious  Teachers  of  Greece,  1908, 

304  Ib.  837  ff .  pp.  167  ff. 

305  Ib.  845  f .  309  Ant.  620  ff .  Jebb. 

306  Ag.  1564;  Cho.  313  f.,  where  it  is    31°  Med.  824  ff. 
called  a  "thrice-old  saw."  3U  Cho.  54  ff. 


40  A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus 

credulous  of  dreams,  oracles  and  portents.  They  feel  sure 
that  Clytemnestra's  dream  bodes  ill  for  her  and  her  paramour: 
"  Verily  mortals  cannot  read  the  future  in  fearful  dreams  or 
oracles,  if  this  vision  of  the  night  find  not  due  fulfillment."312 
The  elders  of  Mycenae  make  grateful  acknowledgment  of  the 
prophetic  art  of  Calchas313  and  of  Cassandra.314  The  readers 
of  dreams  derive  their  mantic  power  from  the  gods;  hence  their 
prophecies  must  needs  be  true.315  The  mystery  shrouding  the 
death  of  Laius  can  surely  be  cleared,  the  chorus  declare,  by  the 
seer,  Tiresias.  For  him  the  chorus  show  the  deepest  reverence: 
he  stands  next  to  Phoebus  in  prophetic  utterance;  of  all  mortals 
he  is  best  able  to  enlighten  the  bewildered  mind  of  Oedipus 
and  alas!  bring  about  his  wretched  end;  "Tiresias,  the  godlike 
prophet,  in  whom  alone  of  men  resides  truth,"  will  not  fail  to 
convict  the  murderer  of  Laius.316  The  hoary  Theban  elders 
confidently  aver  that,  as  long  as  they  have  lived,  Tiresias  has 
never  once  been  a  false  prophet  to  their  city.317  Again  they 
duly  acknowledge  Tiresias'  mantic  power,  when  they  learn  of 
Hsemon's  death;318  while  the  Bacchanals  praise  the  blind  seer 
thus:  "Thou,  old  man,  dost  not  shame  Phoebus  by  thy  words 
and  dost  prudently  honor  the  great  god,  Bromius."319  The 
Trachinian  maidens,  sure  that  Heracles  is  no  more,  recall  with 
innate  faith  the  divine  prophecy  as  to  his  labors  and  the  time 
of  their  fulfillment.320 

16.  Knowledge  of  Myths 

It  is  only  natural  and  right  to  assume  on  the  part  of  the 
orthodox  tragic  chorus  a  familiar  knowledge  of  the  myths  of 
their  people.  Frequently  the  choral  odes  celebrate  mytho- 
logical subjects.321 


17.  Sentiments  of  Piety  Proper 

But  nearest  and  dearest  to  the  hearts  of  the  chorus  are  senti- 
ments of  pure  piety.     This  ethical  concept,  indeed,  rather  than 


312  Soph.  El.  499  ff.  Jebb.  318  76.  1178. 

313  Ag.  249.  319  Bacch.  328  f. 
814  76.  1213.                                             32°  Tr.  821  ff. 

816  Cho.  37  f.  821  Cf.  Eur.  El.  432  ff.;  0.  C.  668  ff., 

818  0.  T.  284  ff.,  297  ff.  1044  ff. 
317  Ant.  1092  ff. 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  41 

moderation  (awcJ)poauvY))  is  fundamental  with  Sophocles.322  Feel- 
ing compassion  for  Philoctetes  and  desiring  to  render  him  aid, 
the  Scyrian  sailors  seek  from  the  wounded  hero  a  kindly  response 
to  their  overtures  by  appealing  to  his  sense  of  piety.323  "  Wretched 
may  that  man  be/'  declare  the  Theban  elders,  "who  disdains 
to  worship  reverently  the  statues  of  the  gods."324  The  presence 
of  the  blind  Oedipus  in  the  sacred  grove  of  the  Furies  outrages 
the  chorus'  sense  of  piety:326  "A  wanderer  that  old  man  must 
have  been, — a  wanderer,  not  a  dweller  in  the  land;  else  never 
would  he  have  advanced  into  this  untrodden  grove  of  the  maid- 
ens with  whom  none  may  strive,  whose  name  we  tremble  to 
speak,  by  whom  we  pass  with  eyes  turned  away,  moving  our 
lips,  without  sound  or  word,  in  still  devotion."  In  the  Anti- 
gone the  elders  of  Thebes,  acting  as  the  apologists  of  Creon, 
while  granting  that  Antigone  possesses  a  sort  of  piety  in  her 
reverence  for  Polynices,  still  deem  her  culpable  for  having 
infringed  the  law  of  the  State;326  and  among  the  sage  remarks 
with  which  the  play  concludes,  the  chorus  make  this:  "No 
impiety  must  ever  be  displayed  toward  things  divine."327  The 
Theban  elders  in  the  Oedipus  Tyrannus  pray  that  wholesome 
rivalry,  which  benefits  the  State,  may  never  be  destroyed  by 
the  god;  never  will  they  cease  holding  the  god  for  their  pro- 
tector.328 

That  masterful  play,  the  Bacchce,  which  by  its  apology  of 
orthodoxy  renders  so  difficult  the  true  decision  as  to  Euripides' 
attitude  toward  religion,  in  view  of  his  well-known  tendency 
to  disparage  and  scorn  tradition,  contains  abundant  evidence 
of  the  chorus'  love  of  piety.  "Blessed  is  he,"  cry  the  Bac- 
chanals, "who,  happy  in  his  knowledge  of  the  gods'  mysteries, 
is  pure  in  life  and  religious  in  soul,  with  holy  purification  holding 
revel  in  the  mountains."329  Pentheus'  remark,  that  no  good 
comes  of  the  Bacchanals'  revelry,  is  characterized  by  them  as 
blasphemous:  "Hast  thou  no  reverence,  stranger,  for  the  gods?" 
they  boldly  ask  Pentheus.330  Aghast  at  the  persistent  impious 
scoffing  of  Pentheus,  the  chorus  invoke  Sanctity,  ruler  of  the 

322  Adam  op.  cit.  p.  164.  327  Ib.  1349  f. 

323  Ph.  1162f.  3280.  T.  879  ff. 

324  0.  T.  885  ff .  329  Bacch.  72  ff. 
326  0.  C.  123  ff.  Jebb.  33°  76.  263. 

328  Ant.  872  ff. 


42  A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus 

gods,  that  she  may  haply  quell  the  king's  profane  utterances.331 
At  sound  of  Dionysus'  voice,  his  votaries  proclaim  their  pious 
worship.332  "  Subtly  do  the  gods  conceal  time's  long  foot  and 
hunt  down  the  impious;  for  'tis  not  meet  to  think  and  to  do 
more  than  the  law  allows.  For  paltry  is  the  expense  of  be- 
lieving that  whatever  is  sent  from  the  gods  and  gains  the  sanc- 
tion of  time  and  nature  has  power  supreme."333  In  impious 
mood  and  lawless  wrath  comes  Pentheus  to  wreak  havoc  on 
the  sacred  orgies  of  Bacchus;  mad  is  his  heart  and  frenzied  his 
mind.  "Free  from  envy  I  rejoice  in  my  quest  of  wisdom  and 
of  other  great  and  ever  visible  goals;  I  strive  to  live  in  piety 
and  holiness  following  noble  ways  from  dawn  to  nightfall  and, 
spurning  the  things  made  outcast  by  Justice,  to  honor  the 
gods."334 

To  the  importunate  Copreus  the  elders  of  Marathon  declare 
the  impiety  of  casting  off  the  stranger  suppliants,  who  have 
sought  from  their  city  the  right  of  sanctuary;335  and  they  up- 
braid him  for  his  failure  to  show  respect  to  their  free  land  and 
for  his  impious  desire  to  violate  the  right  of  the  suppliant.336 
The  heroic  self-sacrifice  of  Macaria,  revealing  the  maiden's 
pious  convictions  and  unswerving  devotion  to  the  cause  of  her 
father,  evokes  from  the  chorus  unstinted  praise;337  while  in  a 
subsequent  ode,  they  admonish  their  city  never  to  cease  honor- 
ing the  gods.338  The  handmaids  of  Creusa,  having  received 
their  instructions  from  Ion  as  to  what  parts  of  the  temple  they 
may  and  may  not  visit,  make  haste  to  say  they  will  not  trans- 
gress the  law  of  the  god.  "Ah!"  they  cry,  "how  I  ever  hate 
wicked  men,  who,  weaving  unjust  wiles,  then  deck  them  forth 
with  fair-seeming  trappings;  give  me  every  time  for  a  friend 
the  lowly  but  honest  man  in  preference  to  the  villain  of  cleverer 
wits."339  "Where  else  than  to  the  altar  shouldst  thou  flee  for 
safety?"  the  chorus  ask  distraught  Creusa.340  "Upon  the 
altar  now  take  thy  seat,  for  if  there  thou  art  slain,  thou  shalt 
curse  thy  murderers  with  blood-guiltiness."341  The  play  con- 

331  Bacch.  370  ff.  337  76.  629. 

332  76.  589  f .  338  76.  902  f . 

333  76.  888  ff.  339  Ion  832  ff. 

334  76.  997  ff.  34°  76.  1255. 
336  Herod.  107  f.  **1  76.  1258  ff. 
836  76.  lllff. 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  43 

eludes  with  an  invocation  to  Apollo,  in  which  the  chorus  voice 
their  faith  in  the  power  of  good  over  evil,  and  exhort  the  man 
smitten  with  tribulation  ardently  to  worship  the  gods.  In  the 
Iphigenia  at  Aulis  the  chorus  of  Chalcidian  women  complain 
of  the  rampant  godlessness  and  disrespect  of  the  law  which 
now  flourish,  because  such  an  unspeakable  thing  as  the  sacrifice 
of  Iphigenia  is  permitted  to  take  place.342  With  joy  the  Theban 
elders  hail  the  end  of  the  impious  Lycus;343  while  the  chorus  of 
Argive  women  gently  reproach  Electra  thus:  "Dost  think 
that  by  thy  tears  alone,  without  honoring  the  gods,  thou  shalt 
prevail  over  thy  enemies?  Not  by  wails  but  by  prayerful 
worship  of  the  gods  shalt  thou  have  the  victory,  my  child."344 
In  ecstasy  over  the  return  of  Orestes,  the  chorus  exclaim  to 
Electra:  "Lift  up  thy  hands  and  voice,  and  send  forth  prayers 
to  the  gods  for  the  safety  of  thy  brother!"345  "Right  it  is," 
declare  the  chorus  of  captive  handmaids,  "to  show  reverence 
to  the  rule  of  the  heaven-dwellers";346  while  they  call  Clytem- 
nestra  an  "impious  woman."347 

The  Danaids,  imploring  their  father  not  to  forsake  them, 
contrast  their  piety  with  the  impiety  of  their  pursuers:  "With 
impious  hearts  they,  like  carrion  crows,  profane  the  gods'  al- 
tars."348 "No  fear  of  these  tridents  and  thunderbolts  of  the 
gods  will  restrain  them,  father,  from  laying  hands  on  us.  Arro- 
gant beyond  endurance,  they  rage  like  mad  hounds  with  unholy 
wrath,  giving  no  ear  to  the  gods.  Their  anger  is  that  of  las- 
civious, impious  monsters."349  Stunned  by  the  herald's  an- 
nouncement of  the  arrival  of  Aegyptus'  sons,  the  Danaids,  with 
fervent  appeal  to  Pelasgus  for  help,  cry  out:  "We  are  undone, 
O  King,  we,  the  innocent  victims  of  impious  outrage."380  "Our 
exile  is  an  ungodly  suffering;  do  not  betray  us,  thou  who  dost 
hold  full  sovereignty  of  the  land,  nor  see  us  torn  from  the  shrine 
of  many  gods."351 

The  impious  boasts  of  Polynices'  men  horrify  the  simple- 
hearted,  orthodox  Theban  maidens;352  while  the  chorus  of 


342  /.  A.  1089  ff.  34*  Supp.  751  f. 

343  H.  F.  760.  349  76.  755  ff. 

344  Eur.  El  194  ff .  36°  Ib.  908. 
3415  76.  592  ff.  361  76.  420  ff. 

346  Cho.  960.  862  Septem  563  ff . 

347  76.  46,  525. 


44  A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus 

Mycenaean  elders  declare  that  the  impious  deed  begets  a  brood 
of  children  in  its  own  likeness.353  Furthermore,  because  Cassan- 
dra persists  in  invoking  Apollo  while  uttering  her  gloomy  fore- 
bodings as  to  the  fate  of  Agamemnon,  the  chorus,  knowing 
Apollo  only  as  a  god  of  joy,  think  her  a  blasphemer.35^  Waxing 
defiant  they  assure  Aegisthus  that  never  shall  they  cringe  to 
such  a  villain  as  he;  that  the  vengeance  he  boasts  of  taking 
on  them  some  day  will  never  be  exacted,  if  haply  by  the  gods' 
help  Orestes  return  in  triumph.355  The  suppliant  mothers, 
after  their  just  claims  have  duly  been  fulfilled,  desire  to  express 
their  heartfelt  gratitude  by  taking  an  oath  of  allegiance  to 
Theseus  and  Athens,  for  "  their  efforts  on  our  behalf  deserve 
our  worship."356  Firm  is  the  resolve  of  the  Danaids  never 
to  brook  base  wedlock  with  the  offspring  of  Aegyptus;  naught 
save  the  will  of  the  gods  can  shake  their  determination.357  The 
Theban  elders,  too,  feel  righteously  indignant  at  Lycus,  the 
presumptuous  usurper:  "Thou  at  least  shalt  never  gloatingly 
rule  over  me,  nor  reap  the  reward  of  my  many  weary  labors."358 
What  may  be  called  the  catechism  of  the  orthodox  Greek  re- 
ligion is  set  forth  in  a  long  prayer  by  the  Danaids;359  and,  as 
we  might  naturally  infer,  part  of  this  catechism  dwells  em- 
phatically upon  the  practice  of  piety.360 

Moderation  (aw^poauvrj,  [JLTQ^V  ayav),  that  greatest  of  all  virtues 
in  the  popular  ethical  system  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  receives 
from  the  tragic  chorus  frequent  honorable  mention,  consti- 
tuting, as  it  does,  a  not  insignificant  aspect  of  the  choric  creed. 
"  'Tis  dangerous  to  have  too  good  a  reputation."361  "Cherish 
neither  the  life  of  license  nor  that  of  bondage;  in  the  Mean 
hath  God  put  strength."362  "Let  thy  prayer  be  moderate; 
desire  not  too  much,"  declare  the  Danaids.363  "Love  that 
comes  in  excess  brings  to  men  neither  fair  fame  nor  virtue."364 
Urging  Chrysothemis  to  follow  her  sister's  pious  advice,  the 
chorus  of  Mycenaean  women  assure  her  that  such  is  the  only 


363  Ag.  759  f.  3M  Supp.  625-709. 

354  Ib.  1078.  36°  Ib.  669-673,  694-696. 

366  76.  1665  ff.  361  Ag.  469  f. 
368  Eur.  Supp.  1232  ff.  362  Eum.  526  ff. 

367  Aesch.  Supp.  1016  f.  363  Supp.  1060  ff. 
388  H.  F.  258  ff.  364  Med.  627  ff . 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  45 

wise  course.365    Such  sentiments  as  these  are,   of  course,   in 
perfect  keeping  with  the  piety  of  the  chorus. 

By  the  neat  phrase  xavBtaox;  e&aegirjc;,  Aeschylus  indicates 
that  trait  of  human  character,  which  for  the  chorus  constitutes 
the  acme  of  attainment.  The  Danaids  are  entreating  the  Argive 
king  to  offer  them  protection  from  the  threatening  violence  of 
Aegyptus'  sons:  "Be  to  us/'  they  implore,  "a  hospitable  host, 
pious  and  perfect  in  justice!"366  This  succinct  expression 
serves  as  a  thorough  and  masterful  interpretation  of  the  re- 
ligious attitude  of  the  tragic  chorus.  Piety  is  the  most  salient 
trait,  but  with  piety  must  go  perfect  justice. 


365  Soph.  El.  464  f .  3«6  Supp.  418.  f . 


CONCLUSION 

From  this  investigation  we  may  with  certainty  conclude 
that  the  tragic  poets  were  at  one  in  assigning  to  the  chorus  as 
a  definite,  collective  body  the  vitally  important  religious  func- 
tion of  defending  and  propagating  the  orthodox  Greek  faith. 
The  actors  might  on  occasion,  as  especially  in  the  dramas  of 
Euripides,  express  unorthodox  sentiments;  the  chorus  never. 
Now  since  Greek  tragedy  possessed  an  essentially  religious 
character,  and  was  maintained  as  a  state  institution,  it  was 
only  natural  that  there  should  be  in  it  some  agency  having 
as  its  consistent  purpose  the  steady  and  potential  promotion 
of  the  state  religion.  Such  an  agency  we  find  the  chorus  to 
have  been;  but  whether  there  was  actually  a  state  law  requiring 
this  duty  of  the  chorus  is  uncertain.  Nevertheless,  the  salient 
and  rigid  consistency  of  the  religious  conduct  of  the  chorus 
would  certainly  constitute  a  cogent  argument  in  favor  of  the 
existence  of  such  a  law.  Probably  no  other  religious  influence 
in  Greek  life  produced  upon  the  popular  mind  such  a  profound 
and  lasting  effect  as  did  the  pious  and  orthodox  utterances 
of  the  tragic  chorus.  Of  course,  secret  rites  and  ceremonies 
such  as  were  performed  in  the  Eleusinian  mysteries  were  bound 
to  create  deep  religious  impressions,  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  they  were  known  to  only  a  comparatively  few,  whereas 
tragedy,  being  a  state  institution,  conferred  its  religious  benefits 
freely  upon  all.  At  the  tragic  performances  the  people  learned 
from  their  able  mentor,  the  chorus,  their  greatest  lessons  in 
the  orthodox  faith.  Despite  the  many  functional  changes 
which  the  chorus  underwent  in  the  historical  development  of 
Greek  tragedy,  its  character  as  a  teacher  of  traditional  orthodoxy 
remained  ever  impervious  to  any  modifying  influences.  How- 
ever widely  they  might  differ  in  other  respects,  the  choruses 
of  Aeschylus  and  of  Euripides  revealed  in  their  religious  atti- 
tude a  fundamental  harmony.  The  Bacchanals  are  not  a  whit 
less  orthodox  than  the  Danaids,  yet  the  Supplices  of  Aeschylus 

46 


A  Study  of  Piety  in  the  Greek  Tragic  Chorus  47 

antedates  the  Bacchce  of  Euripides  by  considerably  more  than 
fifty  years.  Time,  then,  has  failed  to  bring  about  any  noticeable 
change  in  the  religious  outlook  of  the  tragic  chorus.  Through- 
out the  entire  history  of  Greek  tragedy,  the  chorus,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  actors,  kept  ever  bright  the  flame  of  the 
Olympian  tradition.  Strong  as  the  intellectual  appeal  of  tragedy 
doubtless  was,  it  hardly  eclipsed  the  religious;  and  if  we  seek 
the  dominant  agent  of  this  religious  appeal,  we  find  it  to  be 
the  chorus.  The  faithful  perpetuation  of  orthodox  sentiment 
in  the  tragic  chorus  constitutes  perhaps  the  only  phenomenon 
of  Greek  tragedy  which  suffered  neither  slight  nor  radical  modi- 
fication in  spite  of  marked  personal  differences  in  the  religious 
views  of  the  individual  tragedians;  and  justly  deserves,  there- 
fore, to  be  reckoned  as  one  of  the  salient  and  vital  elements  of 
Greek  tragedy. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


FEB   241937 


m- 


REC'D  LD 


JAN  5    1959 


'60GB 


15'e    I 


LD  21-100m-8,'34 


U.C.BERKELEY  LIBRARIES  yp    HH97  I 

•III!  llll  Hill  Illll  Illll  Hill  Hill  Illll  Hill  Illil  III!  till  I  O     UU*_  /  I 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


